• UGI USER
  • Apr 18, 2024
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FOREST AND NATURAL VEGETATION IN INDIA

Forest and Natural Vegetation in India

INDIA

India’s rich and diverse forest and natural vegetation are integral to its ecological balance and cultural heritage. This vast country’s vegetation ranges from the tropical rainforests of the Andaman Islands, the Western Ghats, and the Northeastern states to the alpine pastures of the Himalayas, and the arid deserts of Rajasthan. The forests and natural vegetation in India are a product of the country’s varied climate, topography, and soil types, which support a wide array of flora and fauna.

Natural Vegetation

Natural vegetation refers to plant communities that have been left undisturbed over a long time. This allows species to adapt to the local climate and soil conditions to the greatest extent possible. It encompasses a range of ecosystems, including forests, grasslands, deserts, and wetlands, that have developed without significant human intervention. These ecosystems are characterized by their native plant species, which have evolved and adapted to the specific conditions of their environment. Natural vegetation is crucial for maintaining ecological balance, as it supports a wide variety of life forms, provides oxygen, and plays a significant role in the carbon cycle.

Forests

Forests are ecological communities predominantly made up of trees that cover large, uncultivated, and uninhabited areas. They include a dense canopy of woody vegetation and exhibit close ecological linkages with other components of the ecosystem, such as soil, water, and wildlife. Forests can be either natural, having developed through natural processes without human intervention, or man-made, where trees have been planted and managed by humans. They are critical for biodiversity conservation, climate regulation, water cycle maintenance, and soil preservation.

Factors Determining Forest Development

The development of forests in India is influenced by several factors, including:

  • Physiography: The topography and soil types of a region play a significant role in determining the type of vegetation that can thrive. For instance, mountainous regions with rich, loamy soils are conducive to the growth of dense forests, while arid regions with sandy soils support sparse vegetation.
  • Climate: Temperature and rainfall patterns are crucial in determining the distribution of different forest types. High rainfall regions support tropical rainforests, whereas areas with seasonal rainfall have deciduous forests.

Types of Forests in India

India’s forests can be classified into several types based on climatic conditions and the types of trees they support:

  • Tropical Evergreen and Semi-Evergreen Forests: Found in areas with high rainfall, these forests are dense and green year-round, with species like teak, mahogany, and bamboo.
  • Tropical Deciduous Forests: These are the most widespread forest type in India, found in areas with a seasonal rainfall pattern. Trees shed their leaves in the dry season to conserve water.
  • Tropical Thorn Forests and Scrubs: Adapted to arid conditions, these forests are characterized by thorny trees and shrubs, found in the semi-arid regions of Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Punjab.
  • Montane Forests: Found in the mountainous regions of India, these forests change with altitude, from subtropical at lower elevations to temperate and alpine at higher elevations.
  • Mangrove Forests: Located in the coastal regions, especially in the Sundarbans in West Bengal and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, these forests are adapted to saline tidal waters.

Forest Types and Their Coverage in India

The distribution of forest types in India, according to coverage, is as follows:

  • Tropical Moist: 37% of the total forest area, including evergreen and semi-evergreen forests.
  • Tropical Dry: 28%, encompassing deciduous forests and thorn forests.
  • Tropical Wet: 8%, primarily evergreen forests in extremely high rainfall areas.
  • Subtropical Moist: 6%, found in the lower Himalayan region.
  • Tropical Semi-Evergreen: 4%, transitional forests between evergreen and deciduous types.
  • Others: Less than 4%, includes mangroves, montane forests, and others.

India’s forests and natural vegetation are not only crucial for their ecological functions but also for the livelihoods of millions of people, including many indigenous communities. They provide resources like timber, fuel, fodder, medicinal plants, and non-timber forest products, contributing significantly to India’s economy and the well-being of its people. Conservation and sustainable management of these natural resources are vital for maintaining the country’s biodiversity, ensuring water security, and combating climate change.

Tropical Evergreen Forests

To present an in-depth explanation of Tropical Evergreen Forests in India, including both Wet Evergreen/Rainforests and Dry Evergreen/Semi Evergreen/Moist Evergreen, let’s structure the information in a detailed comparative table. This table will highlight their distribution, characteristics, and major species, providing a clear understanding of these forest types.

Aspect Tropical Wet Evergreen/Rainforests Tropical Dry Evergreen/Semi Evergreen/Moist Evergreen
Distribution Areas with more than 250 cm rainfall, Western slopes of Western Ghats, North Eastern region, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Areas with 200-250 cm rainfall Eastern part of Western Ghats. Southern Assam. Coastal Odisha. Slopes of Eastern Himalayas, Eastern part of Andaman Islands.
Characteristics Trees don’t shed leaves annually Lofty trees with dense multi-layered canopies. Sunlight barely reaches the ground Full of epiphytes (creepers) and bamboo. Buttressed roots for broad support. Supports a very high amount of biodiversity, Timber is of high commercial value. Transition forest between tropical evergreen and tropical deciduous, Found bordering the tropical evergreen, Less dense than tropical evergreen, Rougher and thicker bark, Abundant epiphytes and lesser bamboo.
Major Species Ebony, Mahogany, Rosewood, Jamun Champa, Mango, Indian chestnut, Semul, Kadam

This table demonstrates the distinctions and similarities between the two categories of Tropical Evergreen Forests in India. The Wet Evergreen/Rainforests are characterized by their lush, dense canopies and significant biodiversity, thriving in regions with very high rainfall. In contrast, the Dry Evergreen/Semi Evergreen/Moist Evergreen forests, receiving slightly less rainfall, serve as a transitional zone with less dense vegetation and a mix of species indicative of both evergreen and deciduous characteristics. These ecosystems play critical roles in India’s biodiversity and provide valuable timber resources, among other ecological benefits.

Tropical Deciduous Forests

Aspect Moist Deciduous Forests Dry Deciduous Forests
Distribution Areas with 100-200 cm rainfall.

Foothills of Eastern Himalayas.

Eastern slopes of Western Ghats.

Western and central Odisha.

Chotanagpur plateau.

Terai and Bhabar plains.

Mizoram and Manipur.

 Areas with 75-100 cm rainfall.

Terai belt and Himalayan foothills.

Wetter areas of peninsular India and plains (UP and Bihar).
Characteristics Shed leaves in spring and early summer.

Buttress roots with fair undergrowth.

Patches of climbers and bamboo.

Less dense, making them easy to exploit.

Cleared for agriculture.

Economically valuable timber.

Among the most degraded forests.

 Closed and uneven canopy.

Sits between thorn forest and moist deciduous.

Light reaches the ground, supporting decent undergrowth.

Parkland landscape.

Easy to exploit, hence among the most degraded forests.
Major Species Amla, Kusum, Jamun, Bamboo, Sal, Teak, Mahua, Sesum, Semal, Sandalwood, Red sanders, Agarwood. Tendu, Palash, Khair, Bel, Teak, Axelwood, Rosewood.

This comparative analysis showcases the diversity between Moist and Dry Deciduous Forests in India. Moist Deciduous Forests, thriving in areas with higher rainfall, are known for their valuable timber and are significantly impacted by agricultural expansion. In contrast, Dry Deciduous Forests, which receive less rainfall, feature a more open landscape and also offer economically valuable species. Despite their ecological and economic importance, both forest types are among the most degraded, highlighting the need for sustainable management and conservation efforts to preserve these critical habitats and their biodiversity.

TROPICAL THORN AND SHRUB FORESTS

To provide a detailed overview of Tropical Thorn and Shrub Forests in India, including their distribution, characteristics, and major species, we can organize the information into a structured table. This type of forest is adapted to arid environments, featuring plant species with specialized adaptations to survive in low-water conditions.

Aspect Tropical Thorn and Shrub Forests
Distribution Areas with less than 75 cm rainfall.

NW Rajasthan.

SW Punjab and Haryana, western UP, and parts of MP.

Kutch and Saurashtra of Gujarat.

Leeward sides of Western Ghats.
Characteristics Widely scattered vegetation with long, deep roots.

Thick, small, glossy leaves to conserve water.

Xerophytic adaptations to minimize water loss.

Some species only grow in the rainy season.

Presence of some undergrowth.
Major Species Date Palm, Babul, Cacti, Khair, Neem.

Tropical Thorn and Shrub Forests in India are characterized by their resilience and adaptability to harsh, arid conditions, showcasing a unique ecosystem adapted to conserve water. These forests are found in regions with very low annual rainfall, and the species that thrive there have developed specialized mechanisms to survive drought conditions, such as deep root systems and water-conserving foliage. The presence of species like Date Palm, Babul, and Neem is indicative of the forest’s adaptation to its environment, providing not only ecological value but also benefits to local communities through resources like timber, fodder, and medicinal plants.

MONTANE FORESTS

Montane Forests, particularly those in the Northern Montane region or the Himalayas, exhibit a unique succession of vegetation types that change with altitude. This altitudinal gradient in vegetation types ranges from tropical forests at the lower levels to tundra conditions at the highest elevations. The changes in vegetation are primarily due to variations in temperature, moisture, and soil conditions associated with increasing altitude.

Altitude Range Vegetation Type Characteristics
Up to 1,000 m Tropical Rainforests Dense, evergreen forests.

High biodiversity.

Species include tall trees and a variety of epiphytes.

Warm and wet climate.
1,000-2,000 m Subtropical Forests Mix of evergreen and deciduous trees.

Species such as oak, chestnut, and bamboo.

Cooler temperatures and moderate rainfall.
2,000-3,000 m Temperate Forests Deciduous forests in the lower parts and coniferous forests in the higher parts.

Species include pine, cedar, and fir.

Cooler temperatures with distinct winter season.
3,000-4,000 m Subalpine Forests Coniferous forests.

Species adapted to cold conditions, such as spruce and juniper.

Shorter growing season due to colder temperatures.
Above 4,000 m Alpine Tundra No trees; vegetation consists of shrubs, herbs, and grasses.

Species adapted to cold and wind, with low stature and ground-hugging forms.

Permafrost conditions may exist, limiting the depth of root systems.

This table illustrates the diverse range of vegetation types found within the Northern Montane Forests/Himalayas as one ascends in altitude. Each altitude range supports a distinct vegetation type, adapted to the specific environmental conditions present. From the lush tropical rainforests at lower altitudes to the sparse alpine tundra at the highest elevations, the Himalayas offer a rich tapestry of biodiversity and ecosystems. These forests not only provide critical habitats for a wide range of flora and fauna but also play important roles in water regulation, climate moderation, and soil conservation in the region

Southern Montane Forest

Southern Montane Forests in India, predominantly found across the Western Ghats, Nilgiris, Vindhya Range, Satpura and Maikal ranges, and the southern hill complexes of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, exhibit a diverse array of vegetation due to their unique geographical and climatic conditions. These forests range from tropical in the lower regions to temperate in the higher altitudes, above 1500 meters from sea level. A distinctive feature of these forests is the presence of Shola forests in the Nilgiris, which are temperate broad-leaved forests nestled among grassland ecosystems.

Aspect Details
Distribution Western Ghats and Nilgiris

Vindhya Range

Satpura and Maikal ranges

Southern hill complexes of Tamil Nadu and Kerala
Characteristics Located in tropical areas and regions above 1500m from sea level.

Higher regions exhibit temperate vegetation, while lower regions are tropical.

Shola forests, unique to the Nilgiris, are temperate broad-leaved forests surrounded by grasslands.
Major Species Magnolia, known for its large, fragrant flowers.

Cinchona, from which quinine, a treatment for malaria, is derived.

Wattle, used for its timber, tannin, and as a nitrogen fixer in agriculture.

These forests play a crucial role in maintaining ecological balance, supporting biodiversity, and providing resources like timber and medicinal plants. The unique climatic conditions of the Southern Montane Forests foster a rich diversity of flora, including endemic and economically important species. Conservation of these areas is vital for preserving their ecological integrity, supporting wildlife habitats, and sustaining the livelihoods of local communities

Shola Forests

Shola forests are a distinctive ecosystem found in the Nilgiri region at altitudes around 1500 meters above sea level. They consist of patches of dense, stunted tropical montane forests, often referred to as “Sholas,” interspersed with open grassland areas. This unique vegetation pattern is characterized by its stark contrast between the dense forest patches and the surrounding expansive grasslands. These forests are rich in biodiversity, hosting a variety of endemic and rare species of flora and fauna, making them critical for conservation efforts in the Western Ghats, one of the world’s biodiversity hotspots. The Shola forests play a vital role in regulating the local climate and hydrology, contributing significantly to the water security of the region.

Deforestation

Deforestation, the large-scale removal of forest cover, has significant implications for the environment, wildlife, and human communities. The causes of deforestation are varied, ranging from agricultural expansion to logging and urbanization, each with its own set of consequences.

Causes of Deforestation Effects of Deforestation
Agricultural Expansion Loss of Biodiversity: The conversion of forests into agricultural land leads to habitat destruction, threatening the survival of countless species.
Logging and Timber Harvesting Climate Change: Trees absorb carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas. Removing trees contributes to increased atmospheric CO2 levels, exacerbating global warming.
Urbanization and Infrastructure Development Soil Erosion and Degradation: Without tree roots to anchor the soil, deforestation increases the risk of soil erosion, leading to poorer soil quality and reduced agricultural productivity.
Mining Activities Water Cycle Disruption: Forests play a crucial role in maintaining local and global water cycles. Deforestation affects precipitation patterns and water availability.
Fires (Natural and Man-made) Increased Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Forest fires not only destroy trees but also release stored carbon into the atmosphere, further contributing to climate change.
Expansion of Plantations (e.g., Palm Oil) Displacement of Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities: Indigenous peoples and local communities often rely on forests for their livelihoods. Deforestation can lead to displacement and loss of cultural heritage.
Illegal Poaching and Wildlife Trade Increased Vulnerability to Natural Disasters: The loss of forests can lead to more severe natural disasters, including floods, landslides, and hurricanes, due to the loss of natural protection.

This table highlights the complex interplay between human activities and environmental degradation. Deforestation not only leads to immediate ecological damage, such as the loss of biodiversity and habitat, but also has long-term effects on the climate, soil health, water resources, and human societies. The disruption of natural cycles and ecosystems underscores the urgency of implementing sustainable forest management practices and conservation strategies to mitigate these adverse effects.

Causes and Effects of deforestation

Causes of Deforestation Detailed Effects of Deforestation
Agricultural Expansion Loss of Biodiversity: Conversion of forests to farms reduces habitats, threatening species with extinction. This loss impacts ecosystems’ resilience, reducing their ability to recover from environmental changes.
Logging and Timber Harvesting Climate Change Acceleration: Deforestation for timber removes carbon-absorbing trees, increasing CO2 levels. This contributes to the greenhouse effect, leading to global temperature rises and altering climate patterns.
Urbanization and Infrastructure Development Soil Erosion and Degradation: The removal of vegetation for urban development exposes soil to erosion, leading to loss of fertile land and increased sediment in rivers, affecting aquatic life and water quality.
Mining Activities Water Cycle Disruption: Extractive activities disturb the soil and forest cover, reducing the forest’s capacity to store and regulate water, leading to changes in river flow and increased risk of droughts and floods.
Fires (Natural and Man-made) Increased Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Forest fires release massive amounts of CO2 and destroy vegetation that could have absorbed CO2, significantly contributing to atmospheric carbon levels and climate change.
Expansion of Plantations (e.g., Palm Oil) Displacement of Indigenous Peoples: Expanding plantations often encroach on indigenous lands, leading to loss of livelihoods, displacement, and conflicts over land rights, eroding cultural identities and practices.
Illegal Poaching and Wildlife Trade Disruption of Ecological Balance: Overexploitation of wildlife for trade affects species populations and their roles in ecosystems, leading to imbalances that can cascade through the food chain.
Infrastructure Projects (Roads, Dams) Fragmentation of Habitats: Large infrastructure projects divide forests, isolating animal populations, limiting genetic exchange, and increasing vulnerability to extinction.
Overgrazing by Livestock Vegetation Loss and Soil Compaction: Grazing pressure from livestock can lead to loss of plant cover, soil compaction, and reduced capacity to absorb water, exacerbating erosion and decreasing soil fertility.
Climate Change (Feedback Loop) Increased Forest Vulnerability: Warmer temperatures and changing precipitation patterns make forests more susceptible to pests, diseases, and fires, leading to further deforestation in a vicious cycle.

This detailed examination of the causes and effects of deforestation illustrates the multifaceted nature of environmental degradation. It shows how human activities directly and indirectly contribute to deforestation and the cascade of consequences that follow, affecting not just the local environment but also global ecological processes and human societies. Addressing deforestation requires comprehensive strategies that consider ecological, economic, and social dimensions, emphasizing sustainable management, conservation, and restoration efforts.

Forest Conservation in India

Forest conservation in India is a critical concern, given the country’s vast biodiversity and the essential role forests play in maintaining ecological balance. The depletion of forests in India can lead to numerous adverse effects, including erratic rainfall patterns, erosion of topsoil, frequent flooding, and a series of chain reactions detrimental to the ecosystem’s health. While forests are a renewable resource, their regeneration takes significant time, underscoring the urgent need for effective conservation strategies.

Conservation Strategies and Initiative

  • Afforestation and Reforestation Programs: Various schemes like the Green India Mission (part of the National Action Plan on Climate Change) aim to increase forest cover through afforestation and reforestation activities.
  • Protected Areas: Establishment of national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, conservation reserves, and community reserves to protect biodiversity and endangered species.
  • Legislative Measures: Implementation of laws such as the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, aimed at preventing the diversion of forest land for non-forest purposes without prior approval.
  • Community-Based Management: Encouraging community participation through Joint Forest Management (JFM) committees, allowing for sustainable use and conservation of forest resources.
  • Biodiversity Conservation: Initiatives like Project Tiger and Project Elephant have been launched to protect these iconic species and their habitats, contributing to broader forest conservation efforts.

Challenges and Future Directions

Despite these policies and initiatives, forest conservation in India faces several challenges, including illegal logging, encroachment of forest lands, habitat fragmentation, and the impact of climate change. Addressing these requires integrated approaches that combine strict enforcement of laws, community engagement, scientific management practices, and international cooperation. The focus must remain on sustainable development that harmonizes environmental conservation with human well-being and economic growth.

India’s Forest Policies

The transition in India’s forest policies post-independence reflects a shift from the colonial legacy of forest exploitation towards recognizing and granting rights to forest communities and emphasizing conservation.

Aspect Forest Policy of 1952 Forest Policy of 1988
Acknowledgment of Rights Acknowledged the rights of local tribes and the importance of managing forests. Declared all natural and traditional forests as ecologically sensitive, granting tribes limited rights for the collection of minor forest produce (firewood, fodder, leaves).
Commercial Exploitation No concrete solution offered to stop commercial exploitation, which continued unabated. Banned all commercial activities of logging and timber in ecologically important forests.
Legislative and Policy Measures Lacked specific laws or policies to achieve the outlined targets, leading to unmet social and ecological objectives. Introduced measures for captive forestry to encourage forests for timber and other commercial activities, while promoting social and agroforestry for local needs.
Forest Cover Target No specific target for increasing forest cover. Set a target to bring 33% of India’s geographical area under forest cover.
Conservation and Restoration Did not effectively address the maintenance and restoration of forests for ecological stability. Emphasized the maintenance and restoration of forests for ecological stability, conserving natural heritage, biodiversity, and genetic pool.
Public Engagement Lacked initiatives to create a people’s movement for forest conservation. Aimed to increase forest cover on degraded land and create a people’s movement to encourage planting of trees and prevent felling.

Social Forestry

Social Forestry in India encompasses a range of forestry activities aimed at improving environmental health, enhancing social welfare, and promoting rural development. It focuses on the management and protection of forests, as well as afforestation on barren lands, to meet the social needs of dependent communities and alleviate pressure on traditional forests.

Component Description Objectives/Features
Agroforestry Combines forestry with agriculture on the same land. Involves the production of food, fodder, fruit, and timber simultaneously. India is the first country to adopt a comprehensive agroforestry policy. Relieve pressure from traditional forests.

Enhance biodiversity and ecological balance.

Promote sustainable land use that integrates trees with crops and/or livestock.

Improve rural livelihoods through diversified and increased production.

Contribute to environmental benefits like soil conservation, water retention, and carbon sequestration.
Farm Forestry Involves the planting of trees for commercial and non-commercial purposes on farmlands by farmers. Unlike agroforestry, it may replace crops completely. State forest departments distribute seedlings free of cost. Utilizes margins of agricultural fields, grasslands, and village lands. Provide timber, fuelwood, and other forest products directly to farmers.

Increase tree cover and contribute to environmental conservation on agricultural lands.

Generate additional income for farmers through the sale of timber and non-timber forest products.

Reduce erosion and improve soil fertility.
Urban Forestry Focuses on the raising and management of trees in and around urban centers, including green belts, parks, and roadsides. Cities like Gandhinagar and Chandigarh are noted for their per capita urban greenery. Enhance urban aesthetics and recreational spaces.

Improve air quality and reduce urban heat island effect through increased green cover.

Provide environmental education and community involvement opportunities.

Support biodiversity conservation within urban areas.

Mitigate pollution and provide shade and cooling in urban environments.

Social Forestry in India aims to address environmental issues such as reduced and erratic rainfall, loss of biodiversity, ecological imbalances, and the impacts on livelihoods of forest-dwelling communities. By integrating tree cultivation with agricultural practices, promoting tree planting on farmlands, and enhancing urban green spaces, Social Forestry seeks to create a sustainable environment that supports both ecological balance and the needs of local communities. These initiatives not only contribute to forest conservation but also bolster food security, income generation, and quality of life, particularly in rural and urban fringe areas.

Social forestry in India refers to the management and protection of forests and afforestation on barren lands with the purpose of helping in the environmental, social, and rural development. The Government of India initiated social forestry projects with the aim of reducing pressure on traditional forests by providing a range of products and services for rural and urban communities. The evaluation of social forestry in India involves considering various aspects such as environmental, economic, and social impacts.

  • Objectives of Social Forestry in India
  • Environmental Conservation: To reduce deforestation and maintain ecological balance by planting trees on non-forest land.
  • Economic Benefits: To provide fuel, fodder, timber, and non-timber forest products to rural populations, thereby contributing to their livelihood.
  • Social Empowerment: To involve local communities in the planning and management of forest resources, thereby ensuring equitable distribution of benefits.
  • Components of Social Forestry
  • Farm Forestry: Encouraging farmers to plant trees on their own land to meet the household and commercial needs.
  • Community Forestry: Involving local communities in the development and management of forest resources on common lands.
  • Extension Forestry: Planting of trees on the sides of roads, canals, and railways, as well as on wasteland for ecological benefits.
  • Agroforestry: Integration of trees and shrubs into agricultural landscapes to enhance productivity and sustainability.
  • Evaluation Criteria
  • Environmental Impact:
  • Success in Afforestation: The extent to which barren and degraded lands have been converted into green areas.
  • Biodiversity Conservation: Effectiveness in conserving flora and fauna and in restoring ecological balance.
  • Climate Change Mitigation: Contribution to carbon sequestration and reduction in global warming.
  • Economic Impact
  • Livelihood Support: Impact on the livelihoods of rural communities, including employment generation and income from the sale of forest products.
  • Productivity: Increase in the productivity of lands through agroforestry practices.
  • Community Participation: The level of involvement of local communities in planning and implementing social forestry programs.
  • Equity: Fair distribution of the benefits of social forestry among all sections of the community, including marginalized groups.
  • Challenges and Issues
  • Land Ownership Conflicts: Disputes over land rights can affect the implementation of social forestry programs.
  • Sustainability Concerns: Over-exploitation of forest resources without adequate measures for regeneration.
  • Bureaucratic Hurdles: Red tape and lack of coordination among various government departments can hamper the effectiveness of social forestry initiatives.
  • Achievements and Success Stories
  • Increased Green Cover: Social forestry has contributed to increasing the forest and tree cover in many parts of India.
  • Community Empowerment: Successful examples of community forestry where local populations have been empowered to manage forest resources sustainably.
  • Recommendations for Improvement
  • Enhanced Community Involvement: Strengthening the role of community organizations in the planning and implementation processes.
  • Sustainable Practices: Promoting sustainable harvesting methods and regeneration practices to ensure the long-term viability of forest resources.
  • Policy and Institutional Support: Streamlining policies and providing institutional support for addressing the challenges faced by social forestry.

Social forestry in India is a critical component of the country’s environmental and rural development strategy. While there have been significant achievements, ongoing evaluation and adaptation are necessary to address challenges and maximize the benefits of social forestry for future generations.

Laws and Other Initiatives for Conservation

Law Year Key Features Objectives Impact/Significance
Forest Conservation Act 1980 Enacted to prevent the diversion of forest land for non-forest purposes.

Defines “forest land” as reserved forest, protected forest, or any area recorded as forest in government records.

Requires prior permission from the central government for diversion of forest land.

The 1988 amendment prohibited the lease of forest land to anyone except the government.

 To conserve India’s forest cover by regulating land use and preventing the conversion of forest land for non-forest purposes. Significant in reducing deforestation and the diversion of forest land, thereby conserving biodiversity and maintaining ecological balance.

Enhanced legal protection for forests across India.
Wildlife Protection Act 1972 Based on Articles 48A and 51A of the Indian Constitution, emphasizing the protection and improvement of the natural environment.

Establishes wildlife advisory boards, wardens, and outlines their powers and duties.

India’s membership in CITES.

Comprehensive listing of endangered species.

Provides protection under six schedules, with Schedule I and II offering absolute protection.

Regulates the sale, transfer, and management of wildlife species.

Establishes wildlife sanctuaries, National Parks, Central Zoo Authority, and the National Board for Wildlife.

Formation of the National Tiger Conservation Authority.

 To protect wildlife and their habitats by regulating activities affecting them, thus conserving India’s biodiversity. Critical in the protection of endangered species and conservation of habitats.

Led to the establishment of protected areas, contributing to biodiversity conservation and sustainable use of natural resources.

Strengthened India’s legal framework for wildlife conservation.

These laws represent comprehensive efforts to safeguard India’s natural heritage, reflecting a commitment to environmental conservation and sustainable development. They have significantly contributed to the preservation of forests and wildlife, aiding in the protection of biodiversity and ensuring the sustainable use of natural resources for future generations.

India’s State of Forest Report 2021

India’s State of Forest Rport (ISFR) 2021, prepared by the Forest Survey of India (FSI) and published by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC), provides an in-depth analysis of the country’s forest resources. This biennial report, a follow-up to the 2019 edition, offers critical data on forest cover, forest area, tree cover, and various other parameters essential for environmental policy and conservation efforts.

  • Distinction between Forest Cover and Forest Area
  • Forest Cover refers to all land, more than one hectare in area, with a tree canopy density of more than 10%, irrespective of land ownership (government or private).
  • Forest Area is defined as land recorded as forest in government records, regardless of the actual tree cover.
  • Tree Cover comprises tree patches of less than one hectare in extent outside recorded forest areas.
  • Key Features of the 2021 Report
  • Types of Forests Surveyed:
  1. Very Dense Forests: With a canopy density of more than 70%.
  2. Moderately Dense Forests: Canopy density between 40% and 70%.
  3. Open Forests: Canopy density between 10% and 40%.
  4. Areas with a canopy density of less than 10% are classified as “Scrub”.
  • Forest and Tree Cover:
  1. Total forest and tree cover in India is estimated at around 81 million hectares, which is 24.6% of the total geographical area of the country, marking an increase of 2261 sq. km from the previous report.
  • Geographical Distribution:
    1. The states with the largest forest cover are Madhya Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, and Chhattisgarh.
    2. The highest increase in forest cover was observed in Andhra Pradesh, followed by Telangana and Odisha.
    3. Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Manipur, and Nagaland are the states with the highest percentage of forest cover relative to their total geographical area.
    4. Seventeen states and Union Territories have more than 33% of their geographical area under forest cover, with some areas like Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Mizoram, Meghalaya, and Arunachal Pradesh having more than 75% forest cover.
  • Mangrove and Bamboo Forests:
    1. The total mangrove cover has increased to around 5000 sq. km.
    2. Bamboo forests have seen a 26% growth since 2019.
    3. The top three states showing an increase in mangrove cover are Odisha, Maharashtra, and Karnataka.
  • Carbon Stock:
    1. The total carbon stock in India’s forests is estimated at around 7200 million tonnes, marking an increase of approximately 80 million tonnes since the last report.
  • What’s New in the 2021 Report?
  • Conservation Areas Assessment:
  1. A new chapter focuses on the assessment of forest cover within Tiger Reserves, Lion Conservation Areas (e.g., Gir Forest), and Tiger Corridors, providing insights into the impact of conservation measures.
  • Forest Cover in Conservation Zones:
  1. A decadal increase in forest cover was observed in 20 out of 32 Tiger Reserves, while the rest showed a decrease.
  2. Forest cover in tiger corridors has increased, contrasting with a decrease in some tiger reserves.
  3. Specific reserves like Buxa (West Bengal), Indravati (Chhattisgarh), and Annamalai (Tamil Nadu) saw an increase in forest cover, while others like Kawal (Telangana), Bhadra (Karnataka), and Sundarbans (West Bengal) experienced a loss.
  4. Pakke Tiger Reserve in Arunachal Pradesh boasts almost 97% forest cover, highlighting successful conservation efforts.

The ISFR 2021 illustrates India’s commitment to monitoring and conserving its forest resources. By providing detailed data on forest and tree cover, the report aids in the formulation of policies aimed at sustainable management and conservation of forests, contributing to biodiversity preservation, climate change mitigation, and the well-being of communities dependent on forest resources.

Forest Fires/Wildfires

Wildfires, also known as forest fires, are catastrophic events that rapidly consume vast areas of vegetation, wildlife habitats, and sometimes even human settlements. These fires can quickly devastate ecosystems, leading to significant biodiversity loss and contributing to air pollution through the release of smoke and greenhouse gases. Understanding the dynamics, causes, and impacts of wildfires is crucial for developing effective prevention and management strategies.

  • Dynamics of Wildfires

Wildfires are influenced by the “fire triangle,” which consists of fuel (vegetation and organic matter), oxygen, and a heat source to ignite the fire. These elements together facilitate the ignition and spread of wildfires. Factors such as wind speed and direction, temperature, humidity, and topography (e.g., slopes facing the sun) can significantly affect the behavior of wildfires, making them unpredictable and often uncontrollable.

  • Causes of Wildfires
  • Natural Causes:
  1. Lightning: Can ignite trees and vegetation, with the fire spreading rapidly, especially under windy conditions.
  2. Volcanic Eruption: Hot lava can set forests on fire.
  3. Spontaneous Combustion: In rare cases, heat generated from decomposing organic material can ignite fires.
  • Human Activities:
  1. Unattended Campfires and Cigarettes: Can spark fires in dry conditions.
  2. Agricultural Clearing and Land Conversion: The use of fire to clear land can escape control and spread.
  3. Electrical Sparks and Power Lines: Can ignite fires during dry, windy conditions.
  • Role of Climate Change

Climate change exacerbates wildfire risks through:

  • Increased Heat Waves: Making conditions more prone to fires.
  • Altered Weather Patterns: Leading to extreme weather events, including prolonged droughts that dry out vegetation, making it more flammable.
  • Elevated CO2 Levels: The trapping of heat can lead to drier conditions conducive to wildfires.
  • Impacts of Wildfires
  • Environmental:
  1. Destruction of ecosystems and habitats, affecting biodiversity.
  2. Soil erosion, leading to further environmental degradation like landslides.
  3. Release of carbon stored in vegetation, contributing to climate change.
  • Human and Economic:
  1. Threat to human life and property, often leading to evacuations and loss of homes.
  2. Economic impacts on agriculture, forestry, and tourism sectors.
  3. Health issues due to air pollution, including respiratory problems and exacerbation of chronic health conditions.
  • Frequency and Trends

A study by the Council of Energy, Environment, and Water (CEEW) highlighted an increase in the frequency, intensity, and duration of forest fires over the past two decades, attributing this trend to both climate change and human activities. Notably:

  • A significant portion of Indian states and forest cover is prone to forest fires.
  • Some regions have experienced a shift from being flood-prone to drought-prone, further increasing fire risks.
  • States like Mizoram have recorded a high incidence of forest fires.
  • Management and Prevention Strategies

Effective management and prevention of wildfires require a multifaceted approach, including:

  • Enhanced Monitoring: Using satellite imagery and sensors for early detection of fires.
  • Community Awareness and Education: Promoting safe practices to prevent human-caused fires.
  • Forest Management: Including controlled burns to reduce fuel load and maintaining firebreaks.
  • Policy and Legislation: Implementing and enforcing laws that reduce the risk of fires.

Wildfires pose a significant challenge under changing climate conditions, necessitating coordinated efforts between governments, communities, and individuals to mitigate risks and manage impacts effectively.

Types of Forest Fires

Type of Forest Fire Description Spread and Containment Common Locations and Effects
Crown Fire Spreads from the top of one tree to another, bypassing ground vegetation. Fastest spreading and most dangerous. Very difficult to contain due to its rapid spread through the canopy. Not specific to a location but extremely hazardous due to its fast spread and difficulty to control.
Surface Fire Originates at ground level, utilizing surface litter (e.g., fallen leaves, dead wood) for fuel. Can extend to taller trees. Easier to control and extinguish compared to crown fires. Can spread to tall trees but is generally more manageable. Common in pine forests. Seeds may survive, allowing the forest to naturally regenerate post-fire.
Ground Fire Consumes organic material below the surface litter, also known as underground or subsurface fires. Slow-moving and hard to detect, can burn for months. These fires are challenging to extinguish due to their nature. Occurs in areas with significant organic material accumulation, like humus and peat. Can cause long-term smoldering effects.

Inclusion of Forest Fires and Wildfires under “Natural Disasters”

  • Current Status
  • Forest fires and wildfires are not currently classified as natural disasters in many jurisdictions, including India. This classification affects the allocation of resources, funding, and the priority level for management and response strategies.
  • Recommendation
  • The CEEW report suggests that forest fires and wildfires should be officially recognized as natural disasters. This change in classification would acknowledge the severe and often unpredictable nature of these events, aligning them with other disasters like floods, earthquakes, and cyclones.

Implications of the Recommendation

  • Enhanced Management and Response
  • By classifying forest fires as natural disasters, they would come under the purview of the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) in India. This shift would potentially streamline response efforts, making them more efficient and coordinated across different levels of government and agencies.
  • Increased Funding and Resources
  • Recognition as natural disasters would likely lead to an increase in allocated funding and resources dedicated to preventing, managing, and mitigating forest fires. This could include investments in early warning systems, firefighting equipment, and public awareness campaigns.
  • Capacity Building
  • With the formal inclusion under NDMA’s oversight, there would be a concerted effort towards capacity building within the forest departments. Training programs, workshops, and simulation exercises could be conducted more frequently to prepare the personnel for effective firefighting and management.
  • Research and Development
  • This change could also spur research and development into more advanced firefighting techniques, better understanding of fire behavior under different environmental conditions, and the development of more effective strategies for fire prevention and control.

Challenges in Implementation

    • Underfunded and Understaffed Departments
  • Forest departments, particularly in developing countries like India, often face challenges such as inadequate funding and staffing. These limitations can hinder effective forest fire management and response.
  • Policy and Legislative Changes
  • Implementing this recommendation would require policy and legislative changes at both national and state levels. This process can be time-consuming and may face bureaucratic and political hurdles.
  • Public Awareness and Engagement
  • Effective management of forest fires also involves public awareness and engagement. Communities, especially those living in fire-prone areas, need to be educated about fire prevention, early warning signs, and evacuation procedures.

Ecological Benefits of Wildfires

Wildfires, while often viewed through the lens of their destructive power, also play a vital role in the functioning and renewal of many ecosystems. The ecological benefits of wildfires are significant, contributing to habitat diversity, nutrient cycling, and the maintenance of various species populations. Here’s a detailed explanation of these benefits:

  • Nutrient Cycling and Soil Fertility
  1. Nutrient Release: Wildfires can rapidly break down organic matter, returning nutrients to the soil more efficiently than the slow process of natural decay. This nutrient release can enhance soil fertility, promoting new plant growth.
  2. Soil Structure: The heat from fires can change the soil structure, sometimes improving its ability to retain water and nutrients, benefiting plant growth in the long term.
  • Habitat Renewal and Biodiversity
  1. New Growth: By clearing out dense underbrush, wildfires can reduce competition for sunlight, allowing sunlight to reach the forest floor. This encourages the growth of a diverse range of plant species, rather than letting a few species dominate.
  2. Biodiversity: Diverse habitats created by periodic fires support a wide range of plant and animal species. Some ecosystems, such as certain types of coniferous forests, depend on regular wildfires for their health and renewal.
  • Seed Germination and Plant Regeneration
  1. Seed Release: Some plant species have adapted to require the heat from fires for their seeds to germinate. For example, certain pine cones are serotinous and only open to release their seeds in response to the heat of a fire.
  2. Plant Regeneration: Fires can stimulate the growth of new plants, including some types of lilies and other flora that require fire to break dormancy and germinate. This process ensures the continuation of these species and contributes to the ecological diversity of the area.
  • Control of Pests and Diseases
  1. Pest Reduction: Wildfires can help control populations of harmful insects and pathogens that can decimate plant communities. By removing these pests, fires can reduce stress on surviving vegetation and encourage healthier ecosystems.
  2. Disease Control: The removal of diseased plants and the reduction in fungal pathogens due to the high heat of wildfires can lead to healthier plant communities post-fire.
  • Reduction of Invasive Species
  1. Invasive Species Control: Wildfires can remove invasive plant species that outcompete native species for resources. Some invasive species are less adapted to survive fires than native species, leading to a restoration of native plants post-fire.
    • Prevention of Larger Fires
  2. Fuel Reduction: Low-intensity fires can reduce the amount of dead wood, leaf litter, and other combustible materials on the forest floor. This natural thinning process can prevent more severe fires by reducing the fuel available for burning.
    • Supporting Wildlife
  3. Habitat Creation: Many animal species benefit from the conditions created by wildfires. For example, some bird species thrive in post-fire environments where open spaces and new growth provide food and nesting opportunities.
  4. Indirect Benefits to Animals: Animals that rely on the plant species that thrive after fires benefit indirectly from the changes in the vegetation structure and composition.

 

UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

1.  If a tropical rainforest is removed, it does not regenerate quickly as compared to a tropical deciduous forest. This is because (2011)

(a) The soil of rainforest is deficient in nutrients
(b) Propagules of the trees in a rainforest have poor viability
(c) The rain forest species are slow-growing
(d) Exotic species invade the fertile soil of rainforest

2.  The vegetation of savannah consists of grassland with scattered small trees, but extensive areas have no trees. The forest development in such areas is generally kept in check by one or more or a combination of some conditions.

Which of the following are such conditions? (2021)

Burrowing animals and termites

1.  Fire
2.  Grazing herbivores
3.  Seasonal rainfall
4.  Soil properties

3.  Select the correct answer using the code given below.

(a) 1 and 2                     (b) 4 and 5
(c) 2, 3 and 4                 (d) 1, 3 and 5

Consider the following statements: (2019)

1.  As per law, the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority exists at both National and State levels.
2.  People’s participation is mandatory in the compensatory afforestation programmes carried out under the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act, 2016.

4.  Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only                     (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2         (d) Neither 1 nor 2

The “Miyawaki method” is well known for the: (2022)

1.  Promotion of commercial farming in arid and semi-arid areas
2.  Development of gardens using genetically modified flora
3.  Creation of mini forests in urban areas
4.  Harvesting wind energy on coastal areas and on sea surfaces

5.  “If rainforests and tropical forests are lungs of the Earth, then surely wetlands function as its kidneys.” Which one of the following functions of wetlands best reflects the above statements? (2022)

1.  The water cycle in wetlands involves surface runoff, subsoil percolation and evaporation.
2.  Algae form the nutrient base upon which fish, crustaceans, molluscs, birds, reptiles and mammals thrive.
3.  Wetlands play a vital role in maintaining sedimentation balance and soil stabilisation.
4.  Aquatic plants absorb heavy metals and excess nutrients.