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MINERAL AND ENERGY RESOURCES

Introduction

• Minerals are naturally occurring substances found on and beneath the Earth’s surface. They can exist in various forms, solid and liquid, and are distributed across different geological layers: the crust, mantle, and core. The process of mineral formation often begins with lava; as it cools, it crystallizes into diverse types of minerals. These minerals are categorized based on their composition and properties into several types, including:

Minerals

• Ferrous Minerals: Contain iron and are magnetic in nature. They are critical for the steel industry.
• Non-Ferrous Minerals: Do not contain iron but may include other metals like copper, zinc, and aluminum, which are essential for various industries.
• Organic Minerals: Formed from biological processes. Examples include coal and petroleum.
• Inorganic Minerals: Comprise minerals not derived from living organisms, such as quartz and diamonds.

Sources of Energy: Conventional and Non-Conventional

• Conventional Energy Sources

1. Commercial Sources: Include coal, petroleum, and electricity. These are widely used for industrial and domestic purposes due to their high energy content and availability.
2. Coal is a primary source of energy and is used extensively for electricity generation.
3. Petroleum products power vehicles, industries, and are also used in the manufacture of chemicals and pharmaceuticals.
4. Electricity is generated from various sources including coal, natural gas, and nuclear power, and is used for residential, commercial, and industrial activities.
5. Non-Commercial Sources: Traditionally relied upon by rural and underdeveloped areas, these include firewood, straw, and dried dung. They are typically used for cooking and heating.

• Non-Conventional Energy Sources

1. Bioenergy: Derived from biological sources such as plants, agricultural and forestry residues, and organic waste. It can be used for heating, electricity generation, and as biofuel for transportation.
2. Solar Energy: Utilizes sunlight to generate electricity and heat through solar panels and solar thermal systems. It’s abundant, renewable, and clean.
3. Wind Energy: Produced by converting wind flow into electricity using wind turbines. It’s a clean and renewable source with a small footprint.
4. Tidal Energy: Generated by harnessing the energy from tidal movements. It’s predictable and environmentally friendly but limited to coastal regions.
5. Energy from Urban Waste: Involves converting waste materials into usable forms of energy, such as electricity or heat, reducing waste and generating energy simultaneously.

The Role of Energy Resources in Economic Development

• The relationship between energy resources and economic development is profound. Energy is a fundamental part of the economic infrastructure, necessary for sustaining growth. The availability of reliable and affordable energy sources underpins industrial activities, transportation, residential heating and cooling, and much more. As economies develop, their energy consumption patterns evolve, typically increasing in complexity and scale. There’s a strong correlation between the level of economic development and the consumption of energy, making the exploration, development, and efficient use of energy resources critical for sustainable growth.

Minerals classification based on major and minor minerals

Key Points:

1. Major Minerals: These are crucial for the country’s economic development, heavily regulated by the central government, and include valuable resources like coal, gold, and diamond.
2. Minor Minerals: Characterized by their local significance and predominantly used in the construction industry. The regulation of minor minerals is primarily under the state government’s purview, allowing for tailored policies that reflect local geology and economic needs.

Minerals classification based on Metallic and Non-Metallic minerals

Distribution of mineral resources in different regions of India

Expansion and Details:

1. Northern Region: This region, especially the Chhotanagpur plateau and Orissa plateau, is rich in a variety of minerals due to its geology and historical volcanic activity. It’s a crucial area for India’s steel industry due to its iron ore and coal reserves.
2. North-Western Region: The Aravalli range in Rajasthan is one of the oldest mountain ranges in India, hosting a variety of minerals. This region’s gypsum and limestone deposits are vital for India’s cement industry.
3. South-Eastern Region: Known for its vast bauxite reserves, this region plays a key role in India’s aluminum industry. The high-quality lignite coal found here is essential for power generation in the southern states.
4. South-Western Region: The coastal state of Goa and parts of Maharashtra and Karnataka are known for their iron and bauxite reserves, crucial for the metallurgy industry. The presence of monazite and thorium is significant for future nuclear energy prospects.
5. Himalayan Region: The diverse geological processes in the Himalayas have led to the formation of valuable mineral deposits like copper, zinc, and tungsten. The Assam valley’s oil deposits are a major contributor to India’s energy sector, with off-shore deposits near Mumbai further enhancing the country’s oil reserves.

This distribution of mineral resources across different regions underscores the geographical diversity and wealth of India in terms of mineral resources. Each region contributes uniquely to the country’s economy and industrial capabilities, making India one of the most mineral-rich countries in the world.

Metallic Minerals
Iron Ore

• India stands as the 4th largest producer and the 5th largest exporter of iron ore globally, showcasing its significant position in the international market. The country is rich in iron ore deposits, making it the largest reserve holder among Asian nations, particularly noted for the high iron content of its reserves. Over 60% of India’s iron ore deposits are of three main superior types: haematite, limonite, and magnetite, which not only cater to domestic demands but also have a substantial international market.

Types of Iron Ore Found in India

• Haematite: This type of iron ore is reddish in color and has a high metallic content. It is predominantly found in the peninsular region of India, within the Dharwad and Cuddapah rock systems. Significant haematite deposits are located in Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Goa.
• Magnetite: Known for its black color and rich metallic content, magnetite is also found in the Dharwad and Cuddapah systems, with significant deposits in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Rajasthan.
• Limonite: This iron ore has a yellow color and a lower density of iron, making it easier and cheaper to mine. It is primarily found in Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, and Himachal Pradesh.

Distribution across India

• Jharkhand: Accounts for more than 25% of India’s reserves, with significant production areas in Singhbhum, Noamundi, and Gua.
• Chhattisgarh: Another key state for iron ore, with major production in Bastar and Durg districts.
• Karnataka: Notable for the Baba Budan hills, Chikmagalur, Kudremukh, and Shivamoga deposits.
• Other States: Maharashtra, Goa, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh also have significant iron ore deposits.

Global Distribution of Iron Ore

• Africa: Key producers include Liberia, South Africa, and Algeria.
• China: Significant deposits in Manchuria, Wuhan, Tai-ye, and Hainan Island.
• Russia: Notable areas include the Kursk region, Ural Mountains, and Kerch peninsula.
• Europe: Sweden, France (Lorraine, Normandy, Pyrenees), and Germany (Rhine valley).
• The Americas: The USA and Canada, particularly around the Great Lakes, hold large reserves.
• Other Notable Producers: Australia, Brazil, and other South American countries also have substantial iron ore reserves.

Challenges in Iron Ore Production in India

• Inadequate Infrastructure: There is a significant need for improvements in transportation, processing facilities, and export terminals.
• Financial Constraints: Limited access to capital for exploration and mine development.
• Environmental Concerns: Mining activities have raised serious environmental issues, including deforestation, soil erosion, and water pollution.
• Global Economic Fluctuations: The demand for iron ore is susceptible to global economic conditions, affecting prices and export volumes.
• Resource Depletion: Overexploitation has led to the exhaustion of some high-quality ore deposits, necessitating the exploration of new areas or the development of lower-grade ores.

Manganese

Distribution of Manganese in India

International Context

Largest Reserves Abundant Deposits Major Producers

Bauxite

National Distribution of Bauxite in India

International Distribution of Bauxite

Copper

Uses of Copper

Distribution of Copper in India

Major Reserves and Mining Countries

• Expansion and Details:
• Domestic Production and Imports: India’s position as a relatively poor producer of copper necessitates the import of large quantities from countries like Canada, Zimbabwe, Japan, and the USA to meet its industrial demands.
• Global Significance: Copper’s distribution across various continents highlights its global importance. Countries with substantial copper reserves play a critical role in the global market, influencing trade dynamics.
• Economic and Industrial Impact: The extensive use of copper in the electrical industry, jewelry making, and as a component in stainless steel production underscores its critical role in various sectors, impacting economies at both national and international levels.

Lead & Zinc

• Overview and Uses: Lead and zinc are versatile metals extensively used across various industries due to their distinct properties. Zinc, with its silver-gray color, low melting and boiling points, finds applications in textile industries for casting dyes, as well as in the manufacturing of batteries, electrodes, pastes, and medicines. Lead, known for its density and malleability, is commonly used in batteries, protective coatings, alloys, and cable sheathing.
• Distribution in India

1. Rajasthan emerges as the largest producer of lead and zinc in India, showcasing the state’s mineral wealth and its significant contribution to the metal industry.
2. Other States: The production of these metals extends to Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, and Maharashtra, highlighting the widespread distribution of lead and zinc ores across the country.

Tin

• Uses and Distribution: Tin is a metal with a wide range of uses, from tin plating and soldering to forming alloys and bronze manufacturing. Its versatility is attributed to its resistance to corrosion and ease of alloying with other metals.
• International Producers: The largest tin-producing countries are in Asia, namely China, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand, indicating the region’s dominance in the global tin market. Other significant producers include Bolivia, Peru, Africa (Nigeria, and Zaire), underscoring the global distribution of tin resources.

Gold

• Significance and Applications: Gold, a symbol of wealth and beauty, is utilized in various domains including jewelry making, electronics, dentistry, and as a standard for monetary systems. Its conductivity and resistance to corrosion make it invaluable in high-precision instruments.
• Distribution in India: India’s gold production is concentrated in Karnataka (Kolar Gold Field, Dharwad, Hassan, and Raichur Hutti Gold Field), making it the largest gold-producing state. Other notable regions include Bihar, Rajasthan, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh.
• International Distribution: Globally, South Africa, Australia, Indonesia, Canada, Ghana, USA, and Chile are renowned for their substantial gold deposits, reflecting the widespread occurrence of this precious metal across continents.

Silver

• Uses and Distribution: Silver’s high conductivity and reflective properties make it indispensable in industries such as chemicals, photography, and glass manufacturing. Its utility spans from industrial applications to luxury goods.
• Indian Reserves: Significant silver deposits in India are located in Rajasthan (Udaipur region), Jharkhand (Dhanbad and Singhbhum regions), and Andhra Pradesh (Vizag region), showcasing the geographical diversity in the distribution of silver ores within the country.

Non-Metallic Minerals
Mica

Limestone

Salt

Dolomite

Asbestos

Magnesite

Kyanite

Sillimanite

Gypsum:

• Gypsum, a versatile mineral found in sedimentary rocks like limestone, sandstones, and shale, plays a critical role in various industries. Its applications range from the manufacturing of plaster of Paris (POP) and tiles to its use in the fertilizer and cement industries.

Applications of Gypsum

• Fertilizer Industry: Gypsum is used to produce ammonium sulfate fertilizer, which aids in soil conditioning, moisture conservation, and nitrogen absorption.
• Cement Industry: It acts as a retarder in cement, preventing it from setting too quickly when water is added.
• Plaster of Paris (POP): Gypsum is a primary component in the production of POP, used in construction, art, and various other fields.
• Tiles and Ceramics: It contributes to the manufacturing process of tiles and ceramics, enhancing their quality and durability.
• Soil Conditioner: Mixed into soil, gypsum helps conserve moisture and facilitates nitrogen absorption, improving soil structure and health.
• Plastics and Ceramics: Gypsum is used in the plastics and ceramics industries for various applications, including as a filler material.

Major Deposits and Producing States in India 

Atomic Minerals

Atomic minerals, particularly Uranium and Thorium, are of significant interest due to their applications in nuclear energy production and various high-tech industries. This document expands on the details of Uranium and Thorium, focusing on their characteristics, sources, and the strategic importance of their reserves in India and globally.

Uranium

• Characteristics: Uranium is a radioactive element essential for nuclear reactors. It naturally contains isotopes U-238 (99%) and U-235 (1%), with U-235 being the fissionable component used in nuclear power generation.
• Sources in India: Notable for its presence in Jharkhand (Singhbhum, Hazaribagh), Bihar (Gaya), Uttar Pradesh (Saharanpur), Rajasthan (Udaipur), and regions of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Monazite, a reddish-brown mineral rich in rare earth metals and a significant source of Uranium, is predominantly found in Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, and Kerala.

Major Uranium Production Areas in India

• Current Operations: The Tummalapalle mine in the Cuddapah Basin is a significant source of Uranium.
• Future Potential: Regions such as Son valley, Wahkut in the Khasi Hills, Meghalaya, and the Aravallis have potential for Uranium mining.
• Monazite Deposits: The world’s richest deposits are in Kerala’s Palakkad and Kollam districts, highlighting India’s potential in rare earth and nuclear material resources.

Global Context

• Uranium’s role in nuclear energy contributes to about 10% of the world’s electricity, making it a vital resource for low-carbon power generation.
• Major international Uranium deposits are found in Australia, Kazakhstan, Canada, and Russia, among others.

Thorium

• Characteristics: Thorium, a weakly radioactive element, is more abundant and less hazardous than Uranium. Thorium-232 is the most stable isotope, widely available in the earth’s crust.
• Sources in India: Significant Thorium reserves are along the Indian coastal regions, especially in Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Odisha, and West Bengal.
• Applications: Used in nuclear reactors as a potential replacement for Uranium, Thorium offers advantages like lesser radioactive waste and higher efficiency.

State-wise Distribution of Thorium in India (in million tons)

• Andhra Pradesh: 3.72
• Tamil Nadu: 2.46
• Odisha: 2.41
• Kerala: 1.90
• West Bengal: 1.22

Global Perspective: India, along with the USA and Australia, holds significant Thorium reserves, positioning it as a key player in future nuclear energy strategies.

Mineral Fuels and Energy Resources

Mineral fuels and energy resources play a pivotal role in generating energy for electricity, production purposes, heating, lighting, and transportation. These non-renewable resources, particularly coal, petroleum, and natural gas, are essential for various industrial processes.

Coal

Coal Resources in India

1. Gondwana Coal: Main source of coal in India, known for its high quality and lower sulfur content. Notably, Anthracite, the highest quality of coal, is absent in Gondwana reserves.
2. Tertiary Coal: Older than Gondwana coal, with lower carbon content. Found in various states, including Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, and Tamil Nadu.

Coal Reserves by State

Coking vs. Non-Coking Coal

Key Points

• Coal Beneficiation: A process aimed at improving the quality of coal by reducing extraneous matter or ash, making it more suitable for its intended use.
• International Context: India and China are among the top coal producers globally, with significant reserves also found in the USA, Russia, and parts of Europe.

Rat Hole Mining

• Rat hole mining is a primitive and hazardous method of mining for coal, involving the digging of small tunnels, typically only 3 to 4 feet in diameter. This method allows only small workers, often children, to enter and extract coal, posing significant risks to their safety and health.
• Location: This form of mining is predominantly practiced in Meghalaya, India, which boasts a coal reserve of approximately 640 million tonnes. Much of this reserve is mined unscientifically by individuals and local communities, leading to numerous environmental and safety concerns.

Problems Related to Coal in India

• Insufficient High-Grade Coking Coal: India largely depends on imports to meet its need for high-grade coking coal.
• Co-existence of Coal Grades: The presence of good and low-grade coal together complicates mining operations, often leading to selective mining and wastage.
• Land Acquisition Issues: Acquiring land for coal mining is becoming increasingly difficult.
• Preference for Open Cast Mining: There’s a trend towards expanding open cast mining at the expense of underground operations, exacerbating land use concerns.
• Lack of a Competitive Coal Market: The absence of a competitive market for coal limits efficiency and innovation.
• Primitive Deep Mining Techniques: Outdated mining methods result in high casualty rates and inefficiencies.
• Restrictive Policies: Policies preventing the simultaneous exploration of coal and Coal Bed Methane hinder resource optimization.
• Low Efficiency: Indian coal mining suffers from a lack of modern technology and equipment.
• Poor Infrastructure: Connectivity issues from mines to consumption points add to the inefficiency.
• Uneven Distribution: The coal’s distribution across the country is not uniform.
• Quality Concerns: High ash content and low calorific value reduce the desirability of Indian coal.
• Pilferage: Losses are incurred at various stages due to pilferage and inadequate transportation infrastructure.

Import of Coal in India: India imports about 300–400 million tonnes of coal annually, primarily from Indonesia, Australia, and South Africa, to supplement the approximately 600 million tonnes produced domestically by Coal India for local consumption.

Highlights of the MMDR Amendment Bill, 2021

• No Restriction on End-Use: Mines will no longer be reserved for a specific end-use, allowing for more flexible utilization of minerals.
• Sale of Minerals by Captive Mines: Captive mines (excluding those of atomic minerals) can sell up to 50% of their annual production on the open market after fulfilling their own requirements. This limit may be increased by the central government.
• Central Government Auctions: In cases where state governments fail to complete auctions within a specified timeframe, the central government is empowered to conduct these auctions.
• Transfer of Statutory Clearances: Statutory clearances can now be transferred and will remain valid for the entire lease period of the new lessee.
• Allocation of Mines with Expired Leases: Mines with expired leases (excluding coal, lignite, and atomic minerals) can be allocated to a government company for a period of up to 10 years or until a new lessee is selected.

Issues Faced with Coal Mining in India (Environmental and Efficiency Concerns)

• The quality of Indian coal is generally inferior compared to that of international coal-exporting countries, featuring high ash content that contributes to environmental pollution.
• Coal extraction often requires underground mining, which is less efficient and more challenging than surface mining.
• The adoption of modern, environmentally friendly technologies and safety measures is costly and not easily compatible with existing mining operations.
• Unscientific extraction methods and selective mining lead to significant wastage of coal resources.

Petroleum

• Petroleum, often referred to as “liquid gold,” is a crucial source of energy and an essential component in a wide array of products and industries. Its versatility extends beyond fueling combustion engines for transportation to being a foundational element in the production of fertilizers, synthetic rubber, medicines, cosmetics, and more.

Characteristics and Formation of Petroleum

• Origin: Petroleum, or crude oil, is a fossil fuel extracted from sedimentary rocks. It forms from the remains of ancient marine organisms that, over millions of years, are subjected to intense pressure and temperature, transforming into hydrocarbon-rich fuel.
• Composition: Typically, petroleum consists of 90 to 95% hydrocarbons, with the remaining 5 to 10% comprising organic compounds that contain oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and traces of organometallic compounds.
• Formation Period: The formation of petroleum primarily started in the Tertiary period, around 3-4 million years ago, under conditions favorable in dense forests, estuaries, deltas, and similar environments.

Prerequisites for an Oil Reservoir

• Porosity: Ability to hold hydrocarbons within the rock.
• Permeability: Capacity for fluids to flow through the rock.
• Presence of Porous Beds: Typically found in sandstone beds or fissured limestone which are essential for trapping petroleum.

Distribution of Petroleum in India

Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR) Facility

• To bolster energy security, India established strategic crude oil storages with a capacity of 5 million metric tons (MMT) at Visakhapatnam, Mangalore, and Padur. Additional reserves are planned for Chandikhole in Odisha and Bikaner in Rajasthan, highlighting India’s proactive measures in mitigating supply shocks.

India and Oil Imports

• India ranks as the world’s third-largest consumer of oil, importing 85% of its needs. Despite diversifying its sources, the Middle East remains a primary supplier due to geographical proximity and lower freight rates. Recent ventures include increased purchases from the USA and new sources like Guyana.

Natural Gas

• Composition: Natural gas is primarily a mixture of methane and ethane, with variations that include propane, butane, and others. It can be found associated with oil or as a distinct deposit.
• Distribution: Significant Indian locations include the KG basin, Assam, Gulf of Khambhat, and the Cuddalore district of Tamil Nadu.
• International Reserves: Major reserves are located in the Persian Gulf, Russia, the USA, Canada, Algeria, Niger Deltas, Malaysia, and Indonesia, showcasing the global distribution of natural gas resources.

Non-Conventional Energy Sources

Non-conventional energy sources are essential for sustainable development, offering alternatives to fossil fuels. Among them, biomass, geothermal energy, and hydrogen are notable for their potential to provide clean, renewable energy.

Biomass

• Definition and Process: Biomass energy is derived from plant and animal waste. It harnesses the energy stored in organic materials, which is released through combustion or biochemical conversion. This process involves breaking down the chemical bonds formed during photosynthesis.
• Sources: Biomass comes from various sources, including the timber industry’s by-products, agricultural crops and residues, forest materials, household waste, and wood. Solid biomass fuels encompass wood logs, pellets, charcoal, agricultural and animal waste, aquatic plants, and urban refuse.
• Uses: Biomass has gained importance, especially in the developed world, for combined heat and power generation, domestic heating, and community heating applications.
• Advantages: As a renewable resource, biomass is widely available globally, serving as a crucial energy source after coal, oil, and natural gas. Its conversion into biogas presents a sustainable energy solution, contributing to global development without depleting resources.

Geothermal Energy

• Definition and Process: Geothermal energy utilizes the Earth’s internal heat for electricity generation and heating. This energy comes from the Earth’s core and can be accessed in areas with geothermal activity such as volcanoes, hot springs, and geysers.
• Categories: The primary geothermal resources are geopressured zones, hot-rock zones, and hydrothermal convection zones, with current commercial exploitation mainly in geopressured areas.
• Geothermal Energy in India: The north-western Himalayas and the western coast are notable geothermal regions. Over 350 hot spring sites have been identified, with the Puga Valley in Ladakh being the most promising field.
• Environmental Impact: While offering a renewable energy source, geothermal energy can cause environmental issues, including noise, gas emissions, and drilling disturbances. The emitted steam may contain hydrogen sulfide, contributing to air pollution and requiring continuous maintenance due to its corrosive properties.

Hydrogen Energy

• Potential and Production: Hydrogen is considered a future fuel, capable of reducing air pollution and global warming risks. It produces water vapor when burned, offering a clean energy source. However, extracting pure hydrogen is challenging and costly, as it naturally occurs in combination with other elements.
• Innovative Sources: Research into producing hydrogen from algae suggests potential for large-scale, cost-effective hydrogen production through controlled photosynthesis.
• Applications and Policies: Hydrogen’s versatility makes it suitable for various applications, including power, heating, transportation, and more. The Indian government’s Green Hydrogen Policy (2022) aims to promote hydrogen use by offering incentives for renewable energy projects, highlighting its commitment to reducing fossil fuel dependency.

Solar Energy

• Understanding Solar Energy: Solar energy is captured through direct and indirect methods, with direct solar energy being utilized for heat, light, and electricity. The conversion of sunlight into electricity is primarily achieved through photovoltaic (PV) cells, also known as solar cells, which employ the photoelectric effect to generate an electrical current.
• Types of Solar Energy Systems: Solar energy systems are broadly categorized into three types: passive, active, and photovoltaic solar energy systems.

1. Passive Solar Energy: Passive solar energy involves the design of buildings and structures to capture, store, and distribute solar energy without the need for mechanical systems. This method includes architectural elements such as large south-facing windows for heating and natural light, thermal mass for heat storage, and shading devices to cool buildings. Passive solar designs reduce reliance on conventional heating and cooling systems, enhancing energy efficiency and reducing utility bills.
2. Active Solar Energy: Active solar energy systems use mechanical devices, such as pumps and fans, to circulate air, water, or other fluids through solar collectors to heat or cool spaces or provide hot water. These systems are more complex than passive systems and can be tailored to meet specific energy needs, making them suitable for a wide range of applications, from residential to commercial buildings.
3. Photovoltaic Solar Energy: Photovoltaic (PV) systems directly convert sunlight into electricity using solar cells made primarily of silicon. When sunlight strikes the PV cells, it excites electrons, creating an electric current. PV systems can be installed on rooftops, integrated into building facades, or deployed in large-scale solar parks. They offer a versatile and scalable solution for reducing dependency on fossil fuels and are instrumental in advancing the global renewable energy agenda.

• Government Incentives and Initiatives: Governments worldwide are implementing various incentives and initiatives to promote solar energy adoption. These include financial incentives such as tax credits, rebates, feed-in tariffs, and low-interest loans to reduce the initial investment cost of solar installations. Additionally, policies like the Renewable Purchase Obligation (RPO) mandate certain entities to procure a portion of their electricity from renewable sources, further encouraging solar energy adoption.
• Major Solar Power Plants in India

1. Bhadla Solar Park in Rajasthan, the world’s largest solar park, demonstrates the potential of solar energy in regions with high solar irradiance.
2. Pavagada Solar Park in Karnataka and Kurnool Ultra Mega Solar Park in Andhra Pradesh further showcase India’s commitment to expanding its solar capacity.
3. The Rewa Ultra Mega Solar project, notable for its innovative financing and implementation strategies, serves as a model for solar project development globally.

• Floating Solar Parks: Floating solar parks represent an innovative approach to utilizing water bodies for solar power generation without occupying valuable land. India’s initiative to build the world’s largest floating solar plant in Khandwa, Madhya Pradesh, underscores the potential of floating solar technology in enhancing energy security while conserving land resources.

Tidal Energy

• Tidal energy harnesses the power of tides, which are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon, the Sun, and the rotation of the Earth. Tidal energy projects require locations with a significant tidal range—the difference in height between high tide and low tide—to be economically viable. A mean tidal range of more than 5 meters is generally considered necessary for tidal power generation.
• How Tidal Energy Works

1. Dam Construction: A dam or barrage is built across the entrance to a tidal bay or estuary, creating a reservoir.
2. Tide Manipulation: When the tide is rising, gates on the dam may prevent water from entering the bay, storing potential energy. Once the tide is high enough, the gates are opened, allowing water to flow through turbines into the reservoir, generating electricity through the movement of turbines.
3. Electricity Generation: As the tide falls (ebb tide), the water level inside the reservoir remains higher than that in the ocean. The stored water can then be released back through the turbines, generating electricity as it flows back to the sea.
4. Environmental Impact: While tidal energy is a renewable and clean source of energy, the construction of dams can have significant impacts on local ecosystems, affecting wildlife and vegetation.

Hydropower Energy

• Hydropower or hydroelectric power generates electricity by utilizing the kinetic energy of falling or flowing water. It is one of the oldest and most widely used forms of renewable energy.
• How Hydropower Works

• Dam Construction: Dams are built on rivers to store water in reservoirs at a high elevation.
• Water Release: Water is released from the reservoir through turbines, which spin and generate electricity.
• Advantages: Hydropower is a renewable, reliable, and cost-effective source of energy. It also has the capacity to quickly adjust its output to match demand.
• Disadvantages: The construction of dams can disrupt local ecosystems, displace communities, and alter natural water courses, leading to significant environmental and social impacts.

• Issues and Challenges with Hydropower

• Infrastructure and Access: Remote potential sites often lack necessary infrastructure, complicating project development.
• Regulatory Delays: Land acquisition, environmental, and forest clearances can cause significant delays.
• Social Opposition: Displacement and resettlement issues can lead to opposition and law and order problems.
• Cultural and Religious Concerns: Dams can affect rivers that hold cultural or religious significance.
• Economic Factors: High tariffs and financing issues, including high costs and lack of long-term funding, can be prohibitive.

• Wind Energy
• Wind energy involves converting wind power into electricity using wind turbines. India ranks fourth globally in terms of wind power installed capacity, following China, the USA, and Germany.
• Challenges in Wind Energy

• Land Availability: Ideal locations for wind farms are becoming increasingly expensive.
• Transmission Issues: Lack of proper transmission infrastructure hinders the growth of wind energy.
• Financial Barriers: Significant investment is required to achieve India’s wind energy targets, necessitating innovative financing solutions like green bonds.
• Operational Issues: The financial health of public electricity distribution utilities often leads to non-payment for wind power producers.

• Government Initiatives

• Policies and Guidelines: Various policies and guidelines have been introduced to promote wind energy, including the National Offshore Wind Energy Policy and guidelines for the development of onshore wind projects.
• Renewable Purchase Obligations: Mandated by the Electricity Act, 2003, these obligations encourage the use of renewable energy.
• Infrastructure Projects: The Green Energy Corridors Project aims to improve the power evacuation and transmission infrastructure for renewable energy sources.

Wave Energy

• Wave energy captures and converts the energy of ocean surface waves into electricity. It is a promising but underutilized form of renewable energy.
• Advantages of Wave Energy

• Renewability and Accessibility: Wave energy is abundant and readily available in many parts of the world.
• Environmental Benefits: It is a clean source of energy that does not produce harmful emissions.
• High Potential: The energy density along shorelines can be significant, offering substantial power generation opportunities.

• Development and Challenges: Wave energy technology is in its early stages, with operational and economic challenges that need to be addressed. However, the potential benefits of wave energy, particularly its sustainability and capacity to contribute significantly to renewable energy portfolios, make it an area of interest for future development.

Energy security

Energy security is a critical concern for countries worldwide, particularly for nations like India, which rely heavily on imported oil to meet their energy needs. Energy security involves ensuring the continuous availability of energy sources at affordable prices to maintain national security, economic prosperity, and environmental sustainability.

Definition and Importance

• Energy security is defined as the uninterrupted availability of energy sources at an affordable price. It is a multifaceted issue that encompasses not just the physical availability of energy sources but also the economic, social, and environmental aspects of energy production and consumption. For India, the world’s third-largest oil consumer, energy security is paramount due to its heavy dependence on oil imports, which account for about 80% of its needs. With India’s energy consumption expected to grow by 4.5% annually over the next 25 years, ensuring energy security is critical for sustaining economic growth and development.

Challenges to Energy Security in India

• Policy Challenges: India faces significant policy challenges, including a failure to attract international investment in domestic hydrocarbon exploration, which could reduce its dependence on imported oil.
• Accessibility Challenges: A substantial portion of the Indian population lacks access to electricity and clean cooking fuels, highlighting the accessibility challenge in energy security.
• Infrastructure and Skill-related Challenges: The development of both conventional and unconventional energy sources is hindered by a lack of skilled manpower and inadequate infrastructure, particularly in transportation, to make energy accessible to all regions.
• Economic Challenges: Rising fuel subsidies and a widening Current Account Deficit (CAD) due to high oil import costs pose serious economic challenges, impacting the overall stability and growth of the economy.
• External Challenges: India’s energy security is further pressured by its growing dependence on imported oil, regulatory uncertainties, international monopolies, and opaque pricing policies in the natural gas sector.
• Energy Crisis: An energy crisis arises when the available energy resources are insufficient to meet the demand. India has faced energy crises due to rapid industrialization, overpopulation, transfer losses, fluctuations in oil prices, geopolitical tensions in the Middle East, and inefficient use of energy resources.

Addressing Energy Security: Initiatives and Solutions

• Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs): As part of its commitment to the Paris Accord, India has updated its NDCs to intensify climate action. This includes reducing the emissions intensity of its GDP by 45% by 2030 and working towards a long-term goal of reaching net-zero by 2070. Initiatives like the ‘Lifestyle for Environment’ (LIFE) movement, aimed at promoting sustainable living practices, are steps toward mitigating climate change and enhancing energy security.
• Statistics and Future Outlook: The demand for electricity in India is projected to rise significantly by 2040, with clean energy sources playing an increasingly important role. Efforts to improve energy efficiency, adopt electric vehicles, and comply with new building codes are expected to contribute to reducing energy demand and pollution levels. However, the challenge of providing access to electricity and clean cooking fuel to the entire population remains.

Doubling Energy Demand by 2040

• Economic Growth and Urbanization: India’s GDP is projected to grow significantly, with urbanization and industrialization acting as key drivers. As more people move to cities and industries expand, the demand for electricity, transportation, and domestic fuel will surge.
• Population Growth: With the population expected to grow, there will be a corresponding increase in the demand for energy in residential buildings, transportation, and services.
• Electrification and Modern Energy Access: Efforts to electrify rural areas and provide modern energy services to the entire population will further boost electricity demand.

Tripling Electricity Demand

• Digitalization and Economic Activities: The digitization of services and expansion of sectors like manufacturing, data centers, and electric mobility are expected to contribute significantly to the increased electricity demand.
• Infrastructure Development: Large-scale infrastructure projects, including smart cities and electric transportation networks, will require substantial amounts of electricity.

Oil Consumption and Energy Security

• Rapid Increase in Oil Consumption: India’s oil consumption is projected to grow at a pace faster than any other major economy. This growth is propelled by increasing vehicle ownership, industrial activity, and air travel.
• Dependence on Oil Imports: Despite modest increases in domestic oil production, India is becoming increasingly reliant on oil imports, particularly from the Middle East. This dependence makes the country vulnerable to global oil price fluctuations and geopolitical tensions.
• Energy Security as a Priority: Enhancing energy security has become crucial for India. Diversifying energy sources, increasing domestic production of oil and gas, and investing in renewable energy are strategies being pursued to mitigate risks associated with heavy reliance on imports.

Refinery Investment Attraction

• Expansion of Refining Capacity: India’s refining capacity is expected to rise, indicating the country’s growing capability to meet its domestic oil product demand and potentially export refined products.
• Attractiveness for Investments: The expansion presents a lucrative opportunity for domestic and international investors. Investments in refinery upgrades, efficiency improvements, and integration with petrochemical operations are areas of interest.

Strategic Moves and Implications

• Renewable Energy Push: To address its energy demand and reduce import dependency, India is significantly investing in renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind, which also aligns with its climate change commitments.
• Energy Efficiency Measures: Enhancing energy efficiency across industries, transportation, and buildings can reduce the overall energy demand, mitigating the pressure on supply systems.
• Strategic Petroleum Reserves: India is also building strategic petroleum reserves to buffer against short-term supply disruptions and price volatility.

National Mineral Policy 2019

The National Mineral Policy 2019 of India is a comprehensive framework aimed at overhauling the mineral sector in the country, focusing on increasing production, attracting private investment, and ensuring environmental and social sustainability.

Key Proposals

• Increased Production: The policy targets a 200% increase in the production of major minerals over seven years, aiming to significantly reduce the trade deficit in the mineral sector.
• Revenue Sharing Model: Introduces a revenue-sharing mechanism to incentivize private sector involvement in exploration activities.
• Private Investment: Aims to attract private investments by offering financial incentives, the right of first refusal at auctions, and other concessions.
• Mining Leases and Mineral Corridors: Proposes the transferability of mining leases and the creation of dedicated mineral corridors to enhance private sector mining activities.
• Export-Import Policy: Emphasizes developing a long-term export-import policy for minerals to provide investment stability in commercial mining operations.
• Exclusive Mining Zones: The concept of Exclusive Mining Zones is introduced, with pre-approved statutory clearances, to streamline the mining lease grant process.
• Streamlined Clearances: Aims to simplify and expedite the clearance process for mineral development and mining operations.
• No-Go Areas: Identifies and designates certain areas as off-limits for mining to protect fragile ecosystems.
• District Mineral Fund: Focuses on the effective utilization of the District Mineral Fund for the welfare of mining-affected communities, emphasizing rehabilitation and resettlement.
• Intergenerational Equity: Incorporates the principle of intergenerational equity in the exploitation of mineral resources, ensuring sustainable development.

Challenges

• Displacement and Rehabilitation: Land acquisition for mining displaces communities, particularly tribal groups, leading to discontent and potentially fueling extremism in mineral-rich regions.
• Environmental Impact: Mining activities can lead to significant environmental degradation, including loss of biodiversity and water pollution, as evidenced by pollution in the Damodar and Kopili rivers.
• Illegal Mining Practices: Illegal mining, such as rat-hole mining in Meghalaya, poses severe risks to workers and challenges legal frameworks.
• Skill Gaps: A disconnect between training institutions and industry needs leads to inadequate workforce productivity and evacuation challenges.

Way Forward

• Policy Implementation: Ensuring the effective implementation of the National Mineral Policy 2019 and maintaining transparency in mineral block allocation.
• Single Window Clearances: Implementing a single-window, time-bound process for environmental and forest clearances to facilitate timely project allocation.
• Environmental and Social Assessments: Conducting thorough Environment Impact Assessments (EIA) and Social Impact Assessments (SIA) prior to project allocation.
• Compliance with NGT Guidelines: Adhering to guidelines from the National Green Tribunal (NGT) for the protection of ecologically sensitive areas.
• Rehabilitation and Welfare: Ensuring the proper rehabilitation of displaced persons and using district mineral funds effectively for their welfare.
• Global Safety Standards: Adopting international safety standards to prevent occupational hazards and taking strong measures against illegal mining practices.

The conservation of mineral and energy resources

The conservation of mineral and energy resources is a global imperative that addresses the environmental, economic, and social challenges of our times. The importance of this conservation stems from the finite nature of these resources and the growing demands of a burgeoning global population. With data released by the Ministry of Mines in 2022 highlighting a 11% increase in mineral production in India, driven by coal, gold, and copper, the urgency for sustainable management practices becomes evident.

Need for Conservation

• Environmental Sustainability: The exploitative nature of mining and energy extraction has severe environmental impacts. Issues such as the Aravalli mining controversy underscore the destruction of ecosystems and biodiversity loss, necessitating a shift towards environmentally friendly technologies and practices.
• Technological Advancements: Embracing better and more efficient mining technologies can significantly reduce environmental damage and enhance resource extraction efficiency.
• Renewable Energy Adoption: The transition to alternative energy sources like solar, wind, tidal, and geothermal energy is crucial. These renewable resources offer sustainable alternatives to fossil fuels, reducing carbon footprints and mitigating climate change.
• Resource Management and Legislation: A strategic roadmap for managing non-renewable resources, complemented by laws to prevent overexploitation, is essential for conservation.
• Recycling and Reuse: These practices address mineral scarcity by ensuring that existing materials are efficiently used, reducing the demand for virgin resources.
• Innovation in Resource Use: Developing technologies to replace exhaustible resources and employing substitutes for scarce materials, like using Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) as an alternative fuel, are pivotal strategies.
• Promotion of Zero-Wastage Mining: New mineral protection policies advocate for zero-wastage mining practices, focusing on sustainable production methods that also safeguard human health.

Challenges in Conservation

• Investment Attraction: The failure to attract international investments hinders the development of mining and energy projects, especially those focused on innovative and sustainable practices.
• Skilled Workforce and Infrastructure: There’s a significant gap in skilled manpower and infrastructure required for developing both conventional and unconventional energy resources sustainably.
• Economic Pressures: Rising fuel subsidies and a growing Current Account Deficit (CAD), coupled with the projected increase in electricity demand by 2040, present economic challenges that complicate conservation efforts.
• Energy Security Concerns: India’s increasing dependence on imported oil, exacerbated by geopolitical tensions like the conflict between Russia and Ukraine, underscores the vulnerability of energy supplies and the importance of energy conservation.

Way Forward

• Sustainable Use and Green Technology: The global challenges of air pollution, climate change, and global warming necessitate a shift towards sustainable resource use and green technologies. This approach ensures that resources are conserved for future generations while also addressing environmental concerns.
• Population and Responsibility: With the world’s population continuing to grow, there’s an increased responsibility to conserve resources, requiring collective action and commitment to sustainable practices.

UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

1.  With reference to India, consider the following statements: (2022)

1.  Monazite is a source of rare earths.
2.  Monazite contains thorium.
3.  Monazite occurs naturally in the entire Indian coastal sands in India.
4.  In India, government bodies only can process or export monazite.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

(a) 1, 2 and 3 only
(b) 1, 2 and 4 only
(c) 3 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

2.  Which of the following is/are the characteristic/characteristics of Indian coal? (2013)

1.  High ash content
2.  Low sulphur content
3.  Low ash fusion temperature

Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

3.  In India, the steel production industry requires the import of: (2015)

(a) Saltpetre
(b) Rock phosphate
(c) Coking coal
(d) All of the above

Consider the following statements: (2018)

1.  In India, State Governments do not have the power to auction non-coal mines.
2.  Andhra Pradesh and Jharkhand do not have gold mines.
3.  Rajasthan has iron ore mines.

4.  Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 and 2
(b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 3
(d) 3 only

Consider the following statements: (2013)

1.  Natural gas occurs in the Gondwana beds.
2.  Mica occurs in abundance in Kodarma.
3.  Dharwars are famous for petroleum.

5.  Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 and 2
(b) 2 only
(c) 2 and 3
(d) None

6.  Consider the following minerals: (2020)

1.  Bentonite
2.  Chromite
3.  Kyanite
4.  Sillimanite

In India, which of the above is/are officially designated as major minerals?

(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 4 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 2, 3 and 4 only

7.  With reference to the management of minor minerals in India, consider the following statements: (2019)

1.  Sand is a ‘minor mineral’ according to the prevailing law in the country.
2.  State Governments have the power to grant mining leases of minor minerals, but the powers regarding the formation of rules related to the grant of minor minerals lie with the Central Government.
3.  The State Government has the power to frame rules to prevent illegal mining of minor minerals.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 and 3 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

8.  In which of the following regions of India are shale gas resources found? (2016)

1.  Cambay Basin
2.  Cauvery Basin
3.  Krishna-Godavari Basin

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

1 and 2 only
3 only
2 and 3 only
1, 2 and 3

9.  Examine the potential of wind energy in India and explain the reasons for their limited spatial spread. (2022)

10.  Discuss the natural resource potentials of ‘Deccan Trap’. (2022)

11.  Elucidate the relationship between globalization and new technology in a world of scarce resources, with special reference to India. (2022)

12.  Describing the distribution of rubber producing countries, indicate the major environmental issues faced by them. (2022)

13.  Despite India being one of the countries of the Gondwanaland, its mining industry contributes much less to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in percentage. Discuss. (2021)

14.  Discuss the multi-dimensional implications of uneven distribution of mineral oil in the world. (2021)

15.  The interlinking of rivers can provide viable solutions to the multi-dimensional inter-related problems of droughts, floods and interrupted navigation. Critically examine (2020)

16.  India has immense potential of solar energy though there are regional variations in its development. Elaborate. 2020

17.  Examine the status of forest resources of India and its resultant impact on climate change. (2020)

18.  Can the strategy of regional-resource based manufacturing help in promoting employment in India? (2019)

19.  Why is India taking keen interest in resources of Arctic Region? 2018

20.  The effective management of land and water resources will drastically reduce the human miseries. Explain. (2016)

21.  South China Sea has assumed great geopolitical significance in the present context. Comment. (2016)

22.  Present an account of the Indus Water Treaty and examine its ecological, economic and political implications in the context of changing bilateral relations. (2016)

23.  Enumerate the problems and prospects of inland water transport in India (2016)

24.  In what way micro-watershed Development projects help in water conservation in drought prone and semi-arid regions of India. (2016)

25.  What are the economic significances of discovery of oil in Arctic Sea and its possible environmental consequences? (2015)

26.  India is well endowed with fresh water resources. Critically examine why it still suffers from water scarcity. 2015

27.  The states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand reaching the limits of their ecological carrying capacity due to tourism. Critically evaluate. (2015)

28.  Critically evaluate the various resources of the oceans which can be harnessed to meet the resource crisis in the world. (2014)

29.  How does India see its place in the economic space of rising natural resource rich Africa? (2014)

30.  With growing scarcity of fossil fuels, the atomic energy is gaining more and more significance in India. Discuss the availability of raw material required for the generation of atomic energy in India and in the world (2013)

31.  It is said the India has substantial reserves of shale oil and gas, which can feed the needs of country for quarter century. However, tapping of the resources doesn’t appear to be high on the agenda. Discuss critically the availability and issues involved (2013)