AGRICULTURE

UGI USER
Apr 11, 2024
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Introduction

Agriculture plays a pivotal role in India’s economy, culture, and society, serving as the backbone of the rural community and a significant contributor to the nation’s economic fabric. This sector encompasses the cultivation of soil, crop production, livestock raising, and the processing and marketing of these agricultural products. As a primary economic activity, agriculture relies heavily on natural resources and unskilled labor, making it a critical source of livelihood for millions.

Significance of Agriculture in India

Employment and Economic Contribution: Agriculture is the largest provider of employment in India, engaging over 52% of the workforce. Reflecting its crucial role, the sector contributed 19.9% to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 2020-2021, marking an increase from 17.8% in 2019-2020. This significant share underscores agriculture’s foundational position in India’s economy.
Green Revolution and Export Status: The Green Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s transformed India into a nation self-sufficient in food grains, reducing the country’s dependence on imports for meeting its food requirements. Today, India stands among the top 10 agricultural product exporters worldwide, showcasing its agricultural prowess and innovation.
Government’s Vision for Agriculture: The Government of India has set an ambitious goal to double farmers’ incomes by 2022. To achieve this, the NITI Aayog outlined three strategic approaches:

Modernizing Agriculture: Implementing advanced farming techniques and technologies to increase productivity.
Policy and Governance Reforms: Streamlining policies and administrative processes to support farmers better and enhance the agricultural sector’s efficiency.
Creation of Value Chain and Rural Infrastructure: Developing infrastructure and value chains to reduce post-harvest losses, improve market access, and enhance the overall value received by farmers for their produce.

Primary Activities and Agriculture

Definition of Primary Activities: Primary activities are those economic activities that directly exploit the environment, utilizing the Earth’s resources such as minerals, water, land, and vegetation. Agriculture falls under this category as it directly depends on soil, water, and climatic conditions for crop production and livestock rearing.
Challenges and Opportunities: Despite its critical importance, the agricultural sector in India faces numerous challenges, including limited irrigation facilities, reliance on monsoon rains, small landholdings, and inadequate access to markets and credit. However, these challenges also present opportunities for growth and development through technological innovation, policy reforms, and infrastructure development.

Performance of Indian Agriculture Sector

The Indian agriculture sector has demonstrated significant growth and resilience, contributing notably to the country’s economic development and food security.

Performance Highlights is given below

Indicator	Detail
FDI Inflow	US$ 2.55 billion (April 2000-March 2022)
Exports (April 2020-Feb 2021 to April 2021-Feb 2022)	US$ 22.07 billion
Gross Value Added (GVA) FY 2021-22	18.8% of India’s total GVA
Growth Rate FY 2021-22	3.9%
Livestock Sector CAGR (Last 5 Years ending 2019-20)	8.15%
Contribution to Household Income from Livestock	~15%

Agriculture Sector Facts in India

Dependence on Agriculture: About 49% of India’s population is involved directly or indirectly in agriculture.
Irrigation: Over 80% of water usage is for irrigation, with about half of the net sown area being irrigated.
Major Agricultural States: States such as Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh are heavily dependent on agriculture.
Animal Husbandry Output: Constitutes about 32% of the agricultural output.
Horticulture Crops: Account for 10% of the total cropped area with significant production of fruits and vegetables.
World Rankings: India is the largest producer of milk, holds 57% of the world’s buffalo population, and 14% of the cattle population.

Salient Features of Indian Agriculture

Type: Subsistence agriculture is predominant.
Dependence on Monsoon: About 60% of agriculture depends on erratic monsoon rains.
Crop Variety: India grows tropical, subtropical, and temperate crops due to its diverse climate and soil conditions.
Food Crops: Constitutes about 2/3rd of the total cropped area.
Infrastructure Challenges: Includes issues with electricity, storage, water, credit, and marketing infrastructure.
Women’s Involvement: Women play a major role in the agricultural sector.

Gathering and Hunting

Gathering and hunting represent humanity’s oldest economic activities. Despite being considered ancient practices, gathering still finds relevance in modern economies, especially in commercial ventures involving the collection of valuable plants for beverages, drugs, cosmetics, and fibers.

Characteristics: Low capital/skill investment, low yield per person, and no surplus production.
Commercial Opportunities: Some modern gathering activities are market-oriented and commercial.
Practiced Regions: Includes high-altitude areas like Northern Canada, Eurasia, southern Chile, low-latitude zones like the Amazon Basin, tropical Africa, northern Australia, and interior southeast Asia. In India, tribes such as Chenchus and Kadars practice hunting and gathering.

Nomadic Herding and Pastoralism

Nomadic herding, also known as pastoral nomadism, is a form of subsistence agriculture where herders rely on their animals for food, clothing, shelter, tools, and transport. This lifestyle involves moving from place to place in search of pasture and water for livestock, with movement patterns that are irregular and dictated by environmental conditions. Nomadic pastoralists are typically found in arid and semi-arid regions of Africa, Asia, and Europe, as well as the tundra regions of Asia and Europe.
Key Characteristics:
Reliance on Livestock: Herders depend almost entirely on their animals for their livelihood.
Movement: Nomads move in an irregular pattern, following the availability of pastures and water.
Geographical Distribution: Found in arid, semi-arid, and tundra regions across Africa, Asia, and Europe.
Animal Types: Different animals are herded, including cattle, goats, sheep, camels, reindeer, horses, musk-oxen, and yaks.
Distinction from Transhumance: Unlike transhumance, which has a fixed seasonal movement pattern, nomadic herding involves irregular movement patterns.

Commercial Livestock Rearing (Ranching)

Commercial livestock rearing, or ranching, is a capital-intensive and organized form of animal rearing conducted on scientific lines. This type of agriculture is characterized by specialization in rearing a single type of animal and is commonly associated with western cultures, being practiced on permanent ranches.
Key Characteristics:
Specialized and Commercial Activity: Focuses on the rearing of one type of animal.
Modern Facilities: Incorporates modern healthcare facilities, mechanization, and technology.
Export-Oriented: Products such as meat, wool, hides, and skin are processed, packed scientifically, and exported.
Geographical Areas: Predominantly found in New Zealand, Australia, Argentina, Uruguay, and the USA.

Primary Subsistence Agriculture

Primary subsistence agriculture involves farmers growing food crops to meet the needs of themselves and their families on smallholdings. This form of agriculture is often synonymous with shifting cultivation, which involves moving from one plot to another once fertility decreases.
Key Characteristics:

Smallholdings: Farmers work on small plots of land.
Shifting Cultivation: Known by various names worldwide, this method involves clearing and using a piece of land temporarily.
Manual Labor: Cultivation is done with primitive tools like sticks and hoes.

Intensive Subsistence Agriculture

Intensive subsistence agriculture is practiced by farmers cultivating small plots of land using simple tools and a significant amount of labor. This form of agriculture is prevalent where farmers own small and marginal lands, with a significant focus on rice cultivation in Asian countries.
Key Characteristics:

Small Land Holdings: Due to high population density, land holdings are small.
Labor-Intensive: Relies heavily on manual labor and family labor for farming activities.
High Yield per Unit Area: Although the yield per unit area is high, per labor productivity is low.

Mediterranean Agriculture

Mediterranean agriculture is characterized by the cultivation of crops and livestock in regions with a Mediterranean climate. It is known for producing high-quality wines, among other products.
Key Characteristics:

Orchard Farming and Viticulture: Focus on orchard farming and viticulture.
Regions: Predominantly practiced around the Mediterranean Basin, California, Central Chile, South Australia, and South Africa.

Plantation Agriculture

Plantation agriculture is a form of commercial farming where a single crop is grown large-scale for the market. This method was introduced by Europeans in tropical colonies.
Key Characteristics:
Monoculture: Specialization in a single crop.
Large Scale: Involves large estates or plantations and significant capital investment.
Geographical Areas: Mainly in tropical areas, including India’s tea plantations and rubber estates.

Extensive Commercial Agriculture

Extensive commercial agriculture is practiced in regions with large tracts of land available, characterized by monocropping and high mechanization but low yield per unit of land.
Key Characteristics:

Large Farms: Operated on vast lands available in certain parts of the world.
Mechanization: Highly mechanized with a focus on a single crop annually.

Mixed Farming

Mixed farming is found in developed parts of the world where crop cultivation and animal husbandry are equally emphasized.
Key Characteristics:

Moderate Farm Size: Farms are of moderate size, growing various crops and rearing animals.
Crop and Animal Husbandry: Equal emphasis on both, with crop rotation and intercropping essential for soil fertility.

Dairy Farming

Dairy farming stands as a specialized branch of agriculture, focusing on breeding, raising, and utilizing dairy animals—predominantly cows—for milk production and subsequent dairy products. This sector plays a crucial role in agricultural practices globally, with India emerging as a frontrunner in milk production.
Characteristics and Requirements
Capital Intensity: Dairy farming requires significant investment in infrastructure, including animal sheds, storage facilities for fodder, and advanced feeding and milking machines.
Cattle Management: There’s a strong focus on cattle breeding, health care, and veterinary services to ensure high milk yield and quality.
India’s Leadership: As the world’s largest milk producer, India contributes 23% to global milk production, showcasing a remarkable compound annual growth rate of about 6.2% in milk production over recent years.

India’s Dairy Sector

Milk Production Growth: India’s milk production surged from 146.31 million tonnes in 2014-15 to 209.96 million tonnes in 2020-21.
Leading States: The top milk-producing states include Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and Andhra Pradesh, highlighting the geographical diversity in dairy farming within the country.

Market Gardening and Horticulture

Market gardening and horticulture represent the cultivation of high-value crops like vegetables, fruits, and flowers, targeting urban markets. This agricultural model prioritizes proximity to urban centers and efficient transport links to cater to high-income consumer groups.
Key Features
Urban Market Orientation: The cultivation is tailored for urban markets, where demand for fresh and high-value produce is significant.
Small Scale and Strategic Location: Farms are typically small and strategically located near transportation networks for easy access to urban consumers.
Global Development: This form of agriculture is prevalent in densely populated and industrialized regions of northwest Europe, the northeastern United States, and the Mediterranean regions, where there’s a high concentration of affluent consumers.

Specialization in Agriculture

Truck Farming: A subset of market gardening, known as truck farming, specializes in vegetable cultivation. The term derives from the distance a truck can cover overnight to deliver fresh produce to markets, emphasizing the importance of proximity to urban centers for the viability of this farming model.

Cooperative Farming

Variant	Description	Key Features	Examples
Cooperative Joint Farming Society	Comprehensive cooperative farming model where members pool land and resources to farm collectively.	Land and resources are pooled. Joint cultivation and management of pre-sowing, cultivation, and post-harvest activities. Seeks external financial assistance. Manages input purchasing and marketing collectively.	Not specified, but similar models are found in various agricultural cooperatives globally.
Cooperative Better Farming Society	Members cultivate their own land but cooperate for pre-sowing and post-harvesting operations.	Individual land cultivation. Collective purchasing of inputs and machinery. Shared pre-sowing and post-harvest activities.	Not specified, but practices akin to this can be observed in cooperatives focusing on input supply and marketing.
Cooperative Tenant Farming Society	Society leases land from the government or private entities and subleases it to its members.	Centralized land leasing. Members cultivate leased land individually. Rent paid by members to society.	Not specified, but this model is often used in regions with significant landless farmer populations.
Cooperative Collective Farming Society	Members permanently pool their land for collective farming, with no option for withdrawal.	Permanent pooling of land. No option for land withdrawal; ownership transferred only through society. Collective cultivation and management.	Kibbutzim in Israel are a well-known international example of collective farming, though not exactly the same as described.

Notable Example of Cooperative Farming in India:

Amul Cooperative: Founded in 1946 and managed by the Gujarat Co-operative Milk Marketing Federation Ltd. (GCMMF), it represents a successful model of cooperative farming in the dairy sector, involving 3.6 million milk producers.

Features of Cooperative Farming:

Recognition of Ownership: Members retain ownership rights while benefiting from collective resources and efforts.
Voluntary Membership: Open to all willing participants, ensuring democratic participation and management.
Democratic Management: Operates on democratic principles, allowing equal say in decision-making processes.
Distribution According to Contribution: Rewards and profits distributed based on individual contributions.
Social Services Provision: Aims to enhance the welfare of members through education and other community services.

Benefits of Cooperative Farming:

Enhances economic efficiency and productivity.
Reduces costs through shared resources and bulk purchasing.
Improves market access and bargaining power.
Facilitates access to credit and financial services.
Promotes sustainable agricultural practices and social welfare.

Advantages of Cooperative Farming

Cooperative farming offers a range of benefits that address economic, social, and environmental challenges faced by individual farmers. These advantages foster a more sustainable and equitable approach to agriculture.

Increase in the Size of the Holdings

Cooperative farming consolidates small and fragmented landholdings, leading to larger, more economically viable farming operations. This consolidation allows for better utilization of land, reduction in farming costs, and increased efficiency.

Social Justice and Cohesion

Cooperatives promote social equality and justice by ensuring that all members have a say in decision-making processes and share equally in the benefits. This approach strengthens community bonds and reduces social disparities.

Provision of Social Services

Cooperative societies often reinvest their earnings into the community, providing members with access to essential services such as education, healthcare, and entertainment. These services improve the quality of life for members and their families.

Carrying of Off-Farm Activities

Cooperatives can engage in allied activities that individual farmers cannot afford, such as processing, marketing, and distribution of agricultural products. These activities add value to farm produce and open up new revenue streams.

Research and Development

By pooling resources, cooperative societies can invest in research and development to improve cultivation techniques and explore new agricultural technologies. This investment enhances productivity and sustainability.

Additional Income and Employment

The diversification of activities under cooperative farming not only provides additional income to members but also creates more employment opportunities. This is particularly important in rural areas, where job options may be limited.

Disadvantages of Cooperative Farming

Fear of Unemployment: The introduction of machinery and consolidation of farm operations may reduce the total number of employment opportunities available, leading to concerns about unemployment among former individual farm workers.
Bureaucratic Interference: Cooperative societies often depend on government support and facilities, which can lead to bureaucratic interference in their day-to-day operations. This dependency can hinder the autonomy and flexibility of cooperatives.
Difficulties in Distribution of Rewards: Determining a fair and equitable distribution of profits and benefits among members can be challenging, especially in larger cooperatives with diverse operations and contributions from members.
Love for Land: Many farmers have a deep attachment to their land, viewing it as not only a source of livelihood but also a symbol of family heritage and status. This emotional attachment can make farmers reluctant to pool their land into a cooperative, fearing loss of ownership and control.

Collective Farming and Dry Zone Farming
Collective Farming

Collective farming is a strategic approach to agriculture that organizes small and marginal farmers into Farmer’s Interest Groups (FIGs) and further integrates these FIGs into larger Farmer Producer Groups (FPGs). This model, inspired by the Kolkhoz system from the erstwhile Soviet Union, aims to enhance agricultural efficiency and self-sufficiency through community effort and shared resources.

Principles and Structure

Social Ownership: The essence of collective farming lies in the communal ownership of production means and collective labor, where resources such as land, livestock, and labor are pooled together.
Individual Plots: Farmers are permitted to maintain small plots for personal crop cultivation, addressing their daily needs while contributing to the collective’s larger goals.

Benefits of Collective Farming

Economy of Scale: The pooling of resources facilitates the realization of economies of scale, making agricultural practices more efficient and productive.
Fair Distribution: Outputs are distributed based on individual contributions, promoting fairness and equity among members.
Social Harmony: Bringing together farmers of diverse backgrounds fosters social unity and cooperation.
Women Empowerment: Employs a significant number of rural women, promoting their empowerment through active engagement in farming activities.

Dry Zone Farming

Dry zone or dryland farming refers to agricultural practices optimized for arid regions, where conservation of water through strategic soil and water management is paramount. This form of agriculture is crucial for cultivating crops in more arid areas of India, such as the Northwest and Central regions.
Crops and Importance

Adapted Crops: Gram, jowar, bajra, and millet are among the crops cultivated in these challenging conditions, highlighting the adaptability and resilience of dryland farming.
Economic Significance: Dryland farms are vital for producing coarse grains, pulses, oilseeds, and raw cotton, contributing significantly to the country’s agricultural output.

Importance of Dryzone Farming

Geographical Coverage: With two-thirds of India’s area being sub-humid or arid, dryland agriculture is extensive, supporting 40% of the population.
Balanced Development: Enhancing the productivity of dryland areas is essential for the country’s balanced development.
Agro-Processing and Export Orientation: Dryland crops like cotton, groundnut, and oilseeds are foundational for developing agro-processing industries and boosting exports.
Linkages with Industry: The cultivation of industrial crops can stimulate the development of meso-scale, household, and cottage industries in rural areas.
Nutrition and Food Security: The cultivation of hardy and nutritious crops like jowar, bajra, and pulses can address malnutrition in poorer regions.
Sustainability and Innovation: Practices like Jatropha cultivation for biofuel production demonstrate dryland farming’s potential for sustainability and innovation.

Types of Dryland Agriculture

Dryland agriculture is a crucial practice in regions where water resources are scarce, relying primarily on rainfall for crop cultivation. It’s categorized based on the amount of rainfall received, the risk of crop failure, and the geographic and climatic conditions of the area.

Type	Rainfall	Region	Risk of Crop Failure	Practiced In
Dry Farming	Less than 750 mm	Arid	High	Western districts of Rajasthan
Dryland Farming	Above 750 mm	Semi-Arid	Moderate	Plateau region of Central India, Central Highlands of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and rain shadow regions of Deccan in Maharashtra
Rainfed Farming	Up to 1150 mm	Sub-Humid and Humid	Low	Eastern Rajasthan, Gujarat, Western Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kashmir, and Andhra Pradesh

Key Features and Practices:

Dry Farming:

Adapts to areas with very low rainfall.
Involves cultivation techniques that maximize water retention, such as deep plowing and mulching.
Suitable crops include millets, sorghum, and pulses that are drought-resistant.

Dryland Farming:

Applicable in regions with slightly higher rainfall.
Implements water conservation techniques and drought-tolerant crops.
Crop rotation and intercropping are common to maintain soil health and reduce the risk of total crop failure.

Rainfed Farming:

Utilizes natural rainfall without additional irrigation in relatively wetter areas.
Focuses on a wider variety of crops, including some cash crops.
Practices soil and water conservation to manage the uneven distribution of rainfall.

Challenges and Adaptation Strategies:

Challenges:

Dependence on unpredictable rainfall patterns.
Soil erosion and nutrient depletion due to overuse and improper management.
Limited crop choices based on water availability.

Adaptation Strategies:

Implementation of soil moisture conservation practices.
Use of drought-resistant crop varieties.
Adoption of sustainable farming practices to improve soil health and water retention.

Benefits of Dryland Farming

Dryland farming, practiced in areas with limited moisture and irregular rainfall, offers several advantages, essential for sustainable agriculture in arid regions.
Moisture Conservation

Objective: To capture and conserve soil moisture to support crops.
Techniques: Include mulching, contour farming, and minimum tillage.

Effective Moisture Utilization

Strategy: Maximizing the use of available moisture for crop growth.
Methods: Choosing drought-resistant crops and employing water-saving irrigation techniques.

Soil Conservation

Goal: To prevent soil erosion and degradation.
Approaches: Cover cropping, windbreaks, and terracing.

Input Cost Control

Management: Minimizing the costs associated with farming inputs.
Practices: Efficient use of seeds, fertilizers, and water to reduce overall expenditure.

Constraints of Drylands

Variable and Low Rainfall

Issue: Uncertainty in crop yields due to low and highly variable rainfall patterns.
Impact: Crops may receive rain when not needed and suffer from drought when moisture is crucial.

Nutrient-Deficient Soils

Problem: Dryland soils are often low in essential macronutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus.
Result: Limited soil fertility, reducing crop yields and quality.

Temperature Extremes

Concern: Wide temperature variations can lead to forced maturity of crops or damage from chilling and frost.
Effect: Poor grain setting and reduced grain quality.

Soil Degradation

Challenge: Soil erosion and degradation are prevalent in dryland areas.
Consequence: Loss of fertile topsoil, further limiting agricultural productivity.

Socio-Economic Issues

Difficulties: Small, fragmented landholdings, lack of market facilities, and frequent crop failures contribute to poor economic conditions for dryland farmers.

Government Initiatives for Dryland Farming

National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA): Focuses on addressing climate change impacts and promoting sustainable agriculture practices.
Sub-Mission on Agroforestry: Launched to integrate trees and shrubs into agricultural landscapes, enhancing environmental and economic benefits.
National Agroforestry Policy, 2014: Aims to coordinate and converge various elements of agroforestry across government programs.
Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY): Seeks to extend irrigation coverage and ensure efficient water use in agriculture.
Agriculture Contingency Plan: Developed to address the impact of erratic monsoon patterns on agriculture, focusing on drought and flood resilience.
Promotion of Millets: Declaring 2018 as the “Year of Millets” to encourage cultivation of these drought-resistant crops.

Integrated Farming System (IFS)

IFS combines crops, animals, and related subsidiary enterprises in a mutually beneficial production system, particularly advantageous in north-eastern and hilly regions of India.
Primary Goals:
Yield Maximization: To provide steady and stable income at higher levels.
Sustainability: Achieving ecological balance and reducing chemical inputs.
Employment Generation: Creating additional income and employment opportunities through diversification.
Advantages for Small and Marginal Farmers:
Nutrient Recycling: Utilizing animal waste as pond fertilizer to enhance fish production.
Cost Efficiency: Reducing input costs, particularly in fish culture, by integrating animal farming.
Socio-Economic Improvement: Offering a viable option for rural communities, especially in regions with a tradition of backyard livestock rearing.

Organic Farming in India: Practices, Challenges, and Government Initiatives

Organic farming has emerged as a sustainable agricultural practice that prioritizes the environment and consumer health by avoiding synthetic inputs like chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and genetically modified organisms (GMOs). In India, organic farming is not just a method of cultivation but a movement towards sustainable and equitable agricultural practices.

Principles of Organic Farming

Organic farming in India is guided by four fundamental principles

Principles of Health: Ensuring the wellbeing of ecosystems, individuals, and communities.
Principles of Ecology: Maintaining a harmonious balance between the ecosystem and the environment.
Principles of Fairness: Promoting equitable human relationships and enhancing the quality of life.
Principles of Care: Considering the environmental impact and the welfare of future generations.

Types of Organic Farming

Pure Organic Farming: Utilizes natural sources for fertilizers and pesticides, excluding all synthetic chemicals.
Integrated Organic Farming: Combines integrated nutrient management and integrated pest management, focusing on a holistic approach to farm management.

Techniques of Organic Farming

Soil Management: Enhances soil fertility through natural means, such as utilizing bacteria found in animal waste.
Weed Management: Employs physical methods like mowing, cutting, and mulching to control weed growth.
Crop Diversity: Cultivates a variety of crops together to meet diverse agricultural demands and enhance biodiversity.
Biological Pest Control: Uses living organisms to manage pest populations, minimizing chemical use.

Advantages of Organic Farming

High Demand: Organic products have a growing market in India and globally, offering lucrative opportunities for farmers.
Environmental Sustainability: Avoids the use of harmful chemicals, preserving soil health and biodiversity.
Healthier Work Environment: Reduces exposure to pesticides, creating a safer environment for farmworkers.
Climate-Friendly Practices: Organic farming practices reduce carbon emissions and conserve water.
Sustainability: Promotes long-term agricultural sustainability through eco-friendly practices.

Challenges of Organic Farming

Economic Challenges: Lack of subsidies and high initial investments make organic farming financially challenging.
Certification Process: The tedious and lengthy certification process can be a barrier to market entry.
Knowledge Intensity: Requires a deep understanding of ecological practices and environmental monitoring.
Infrastructure and Support: The absence of adequate infrastructure and support systems hampers the growth of organic farming.

Adoption of Organic Farming in India

India has made significant strides in organic farming, leading globally in the number of organic farmers and ranking high in certified organic areas. The increase in organic product production and states like Sikkim becoming fully organic highlight the country’s commitment to organic practices.

Government Initiatives

Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY): Supports cluster-based organic farming with certification and marketing assistance.
Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY): Offers financial assistance for various organic farming components.
National Mission on Oilseeds and Oil Palm (NMOOP): Provides financial support for bio-fertilizers and organic inputs.
Participatory Guarantee System (PGS) and National Program for Organic Production (NPOP): Facilitate the certification of organic products for domestic and export markets, respectively.
Organic farming in India represents a holistic approach to agriculture that benefits the environment, farmers, and consumers alike. Despite facing challenges such as the need for more support and the high cost of organic certification, the adoption of organic farming continues to grow, supported by government initiatives and increasing consumer awareness of organic products’ health and environmental benefits. As the sector evolves, organic farming is set to play a pivotal role in India’s agricultural future, promoting sustainability and health for generations to come.

Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF)

Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF) is an innovative, sustainable agricultural practice that emphasizes chemical-free farming, drawing inspiration from traditional Indian agricultural methods. It aims to reduce farmers’ dependency on loans and inputs by eliminating the need for synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, thus promoting ecological benefits and reducing production costs.

Principles of ZBNF

No External Inputs: Utilizes resources available within the farm, eliminating the cost of purchasing inputs.
365 Days of Living Root: Ensures that the soil is always covered with crops to enhance soil health.
Minimal Soil Disturbance: Preserves soil structure and microbial activity.
Bio-Stimulants: Uses natural formulations to stimulate plant growth.
Indigenous Seeds: Encourages the use of local seed varieties for resilience and adaptability.
Mixed Cropping and Tree Integration: Promotes biodiversity and ecological balance.
Water Conservation: Implements practices for efficient water use and moisture retention.
Animal Integration: Incorporates livestock for a holistic farming ecosystem.

Four Main Elements of ZBNF

Bijamrita: A seed treatment formulation made from cow dung and urine to protect seeds from diseases.
Jiwamrita/Jeevamrutha: A fermented microbial culture that enhances soil fertility and microbial activity.
Acchadana/Mulching: Covers soil with organic waste or crops to conserve moisture and improve soil health.
Waaphasa/Soil Aeration: Enhances soil aeration through the application of Jiwamrita and mulching.

Benefits of ZBNF

Reduces water and electricity consumption.
Significantly lowers methane emissions.
Enhances soil health and ecosystem.
Increases farmers’ income by reducing initial costs.
Improves crop quality by reducing chemical usage.

Challenges and Way Forward

Limited adoption across India and lack of extensive scientific research.
NITI Aayog, the Andhra Pradesh Government, and the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) are evaluating ZBNF’s effectiveness for wider promotion.

Government Support for ZBNF

The Indian government, through schemes under the Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY) and Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY), supports natural farming practices.
Andhra Pradesh’s ambitious plan aims for 100% natural farming by 2024, serving as a model for ZBNF adoption.

ZBNF represents a shift towards more sustainable and ecologically friendly farming practices, promising significant benefits for soil health, biodiversity, and farmer livelihoods. With increasing institutional support and scientific validation, ZBNF has the potential to transform India’s agricultural landscape.

Sustainable Agriculture

Sustainable agriculture represents an integrated approach to farming that aims for long-term agricultural productivity and ecological health. It focuses on employing practices that maintain the health of the land, conserve resources, and improve farming efficiency, all while ensuring food security and supporting rural economies.

Main Components of Sustainable Agriculture

Building Healthy Soil and Preventing Erosion: Implementing practices like crop rotation, cover cropping, and organic fertilization to enhance soil health and prevent erosion.
Managing Water Wisely: Utilizing water-efficient irrigation techniques such as drip irrigation to conserve water resources.
Minimizing Air and Water Pollution: Reducing the use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers to decrease pollution levels in air and water bodies.
Storing Carbon on Farms: Adopting practices like agroforestry and conservation tillage to increase carbon sequestration on agricultural land.
Increasing Resilience to Extreme Weather: Implementing diversified cropping systems and water management strategies to build resilience against climate variability.
Promoting Biodiversity: Encouraging the cultivation of a variety of crops and maintaining natural habitats to support biodiversity.

Benefits of Sustainable Farming

Environmental Conservation: Sustainable practices replenish natural resources and help maintain ecosystem balance.
Public Health Safety: By avoiding hazardous chemicals and managing livestock waste properly, sustainable farming reduces health risks associated with agricultural pollutants.
Prevents Soil Erosion: Soil conservation methods integral to sustainable farming help in mitigating soil erosion, a significant threat to global food production.
Reduction in Cost: Efficiency improvements in sustainable farming practices can reduce operational costs for farmers and contribute to more economical food production processes.
Biodiversity: Sustainable farming encourages a rich diversity of life on farms, which aids in soil enrichment, disease prevention, and pest control through natural means.

Challenges to Sustainable Agriculture

Feeding a Growing Population: Balancing the need for increased food production with sustainable practices remains a significant challenge, especially in countries facing food security issues.
Providing Livelihood for Farmers: Transitioning to sustainable agriculture may impose higher costs on farmers, potentially leading to increased consumer prices.
Affordability of Technology: Many farmers, particularly in developing countries, lack the financial resources to invest in advanced agricultural technologies that can promote sustainability.
Infrastructure and Awareness: Challenges such as inadequate rural transport, lack of awareness about sustainable practices, dependence on unpredictable weather patterns, and shrinking agricultural land further complicate the transition to sustainable agriculture.
Sustainable agriculture is crucial for ensuring the long-term viability of the farming sector and the well-being of the planet. While the benefits of adopting sustainable practices are manifold, ranging from environmental conservation to public health safety, significant challenges remain. Addressing these challenges requires concerted efforts from governments, the private sector, and communities to provide the necessary support, infrastructure, and education to farmers. Through such collaborative endeavors, sustainable agriculture can lead to healthier ecosystems, resilient food systems, and improved livelihoods for farmers worldwide.

Increase in Share of Agricultural Employment

Background from the Latest PLFS Report

The Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) report for 2019-20 highlighted a notable shift in India’s employment landscape, showing a rise in the percentage of agricultural employment from 42.5% in 2018-19 to 45.6%. This increase contrasts with declines in manufacturing, construction, transport, storage, and communication sectors, marking significant sectoral employment changes.

Agriculture as a Safety Net

Agriculture serves as a critical safety net in India, offering low-wage employment during periods of economic distress. The migration of labor towards agriculture is often seen as an indicator of distress in non-agricultural sectors, reflecting their inability to sustain employment. The most significant demographic to benefit from this shift has been women, who saw the largest increase in agricultural employment during this period.

Pandemic Impact and Government Intervention

During the pandemic, agriculture emerged as a key sector, absorbing workers who migrated back to rural areas from cities. With appropriate government interventions, agriculture has the potential to become a significant employment generator, especially when other sectors are struggling.

Interventions for Enhancement

Startups: Encouraging private investment and startups in agro-processing industries.
Farmer Produce Organizations (FPOs): Promoting FPOs to enhance earnings and retain the youth in agriculture.
Linkages: Developing forward and backward linkages to create employment in packaging, storage, processing, logistics, and more.
Technology: Leveraging ICT to boost agricultural labor productivity.

Major Constraints in Indian Agriculture

Operational Holdings: The small size of operational holdings, with an average of 1.15 hectares, predominantly in the marginal and small categories.
Subsistence Farming: A large portion of Indian agriculture is subsistence-oriented, limiting the benefits of economies of scale and mechanized farming.
Access to Credit: Farmers’ limited access to credit and dependency on unorganized creditors.
Linkages and Irrigation: Insufficient forward linkages, low value addition, and inadequate irrigation infrastructure.
Challenges: Key challenges include small holdings, processing, supply chain inefficiencies, and the need for improved marketing strategies.

Future Scope for Indian Agriculture

Diverse Climatic Zones: India’s vast and varied agro-climatic zones offer the potential for a wide range of crops.
Precision Agriculture: Emerging technologies and concepts like precision agriculture and farm-to-fork initiatives are enhancing economic outputs.
Urbanization and Demand: Growing urbanization and income levels are expected to boost demand for diverse, quality, and nutritious food.
Industry 4.0: The integration of IT, IoT, AI, and ML, along with private R&D investment and government initiatives, is transforming agriculture.
Agriculture Startups: The increasing interest of professionals in agricultural startups signifies the sector’s potential for investment and technological advancement.

Area of Focus	Key Challenges	Strategies/Measures
Irrigation	Low crop intensity due to inadequate access to water and moisture for crop production in Rabi season.	Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY): A comprehensive framework to expand and use water efficiently in irrigation. This includes developing irrigation infrastructure, promoting micro-irrigation systems (drip and sprinkler irrigation) to ensure “Per Drop, More Crop,” and improving water use efficiency at the farm level.
Seeds and Fertilizer	Low seed replacement rate and inefficient fertilizer use.	Enhancing Seed Research and Multiplication: Increase seed research capacity and establish more multiplication stations to improve the seed replacement rate. Soil Health Cards: Promote the use of soil health cards to provide farmers with information on soil health, enabling them to customize fertilizer use based on specific soil requirements.
New Technology	Need for high productivity, improved quality, and reduced input costs.	Genetically Modified (GM) Seeds: Leverage GM seeds for higher productivity, better quality, and reduced reliance on fertilizers, weedicides, and pesticides. Precision Farming: Adopt new technologies for precision farming, which allows for more efficient farming practices and resource conservation through the use of advanced equipment and technology.
Diversification	Monoculture farming leading to increased risk and limited production diversity.	Promoting Crop Diversification: Encourage farmers to diversify their crop production to include a variety of crops. This strategy helps expand production activities, reduces dependence on a single crop, mitigates risks associated with crop failure, and can contribute to improved soil health and reduced pest and disease cycles.

This table outlines a comprehensive approach to enhancing agricultural productivity by addressing the crucial areas of irrigation, seed and fertilizer use, adoption of new technology, and diversification of crops. Each of these fronts offers specific strategies designed to overcome challenges and capitalize on opportunities for sustainable growth in agriculture.

Changing Trends in Agriculture: The Path to Modernization

Agriculture, the backbone of numerous economies worldwide, including India, is undergoing a significant transformation. The sector is evolving from traditional practices to incorporate modern technologies and methodologies. This modernization aims to increase productivity, ensure sustainability, and enhance market accessibility.

Protected Cultivation

Protected cultivation, such as greenhouse farming, has emerged as a vital practice for growing vegetables and other crops. This method allows for year-round cultivation, protecting plants from adverse weather conditions, pests, and diseases, thereby increasing yield and quality.

Innovations in Agricultural Inputs

Improved Seeds and Fertilizers

The development of innovative products, including better seeds and fertilizers, is pivotal. These advancements ensure higher crop yields, disease resistance, and reduced dependency on chemical inputs.

Customized Farm Machinery

Customized farm machinery tailored to specific agricultural needs has revolutionized farming practices. These machines increase efficiency, reduce labor costs, and minimize the time required for farming operations.

Biotechnology

The application of biotechnology in agriculture has led to the creation of eco-friendly, climate-resilient, and nutritious crop varieties. Genetic engineering and molecular breeding techniques are being used to develop crops that can withstand adverse climatic conditions and pests, ensuring food security.

Artificial Intelligence and Automation

Artificial intelligence (AI) has introduced precision farming, where inputs are applied accurately using sensors and drones. This technology-driven approach enables precise irrigation, fertilization, and pest management, optimizing resource use and minimizing environmental impact.

Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology’s application in agriculture, particularly in fertilization and pest management, aims to minimize nutrient losses. Nano-formulations ensure the slow release of nutrients and targeted pest control, enhancing efficiency and reducing the ecological footprint.

Digital Connectivity and Market Access

India’s advancements in digital connectivity have revolutionized market access for agricultural products. E-commerce platforms and digital marketplaces have bridged the gap between farmers and consumers, ensuring better prices for producers and fresh produce for consumers.

Skill Impartation to Farmers

To fully leverage these modern trends, there is a pressing need to impart skills to farmers. Training in the use of modern technologies, understanding market dynamics, and adopting sustainable farming practices are crucial. Skill development initiatives can empower farmers, enabling them to increase productivity and improve their livelihoods.

Crop Classification

Crops are vital for human subsistence and economic growth, serving as a primary source of food, raw materials, and employment. The classification of crops is multifaceted, based on the type of produce, climate adaptability, and growing season. Understanding these classifications provides insights into agricultural practices, planning, and management.

Classification Based on Type of Produce

Type	Description	Examples
Food Crops	Crops consumed by humans for nutrition.	Cereals (Rice, Wheat, Maize), Pulses (Gram, Tur)
Cash Crops	Grown for sale in raw or processed form.	Cotton, Jute, Tobacco, Castor, Oilseeds
Plantation Crops	Cultivated in large estates; require substantial labor.	Tea, Coffee, Coconut, Rubber, Spices
Horticulture	Involves cultivation of fruits and vegetables.	Fruits (Apple, Mango, Bananas), Vegetables (Onion, Tomato)

Classification Based on Climate

Climate	Characteristics	Examples
Tropical	Thrive in hot and warm climates.	Rice, Sugarcane, Jawar
Temperate	Prefer cool climates.	Wheat, Gram, Potato

Crop Classification Based on Growing Season

Season	Period	Climate Conditions	Examples
Kharif	June – October	Coincides with Southwest Monsoon; cultivation of tropical crops.	Paddy, Maize, Jute, Sugarcane, Cotton, Millet
Rabi	October – March	Winter season facilitating temperate and subtropical crops.	Wheat, Tobacco, Mustard
Zaid	Post-Rabi Season	Short duration; summer cropping on irrigated lands.	Fruits, Vegetables, Watermelons, Cucumbers

Key Insights
Food and Economic Security: Food crops are pivotal for nutrition and sustenance, while cash crops significantly contribute to the economic stability of farmers and regions.
Climate Adaptation: The adaptability of crops to tropical and temperate climates influences agricultural practices, crop selection, and productivity.
Seasonal Cropping: The division into Kharif, Rabi, and Zaid seasons aligns with climatic patterns, optimizing crop yield and ensuring year-round cultivation.

Understanding these classifications helps in strategic agricultural planning, ensuring food security, and optimizing the economic potential of agriculture. It also highlights the importance of adapting farming practices to environmental conditions and market demands.

Sustainable Agriculture: Enhancing Efficiency and Environmental Health

Sustainable agriculture aims to meet current food needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own. It emphasizes the use of natural resources in a way that maintains their regenerative capacities, minimizes environmental impact, and supports the economic viability of farm operations.

Cropping Patterns in India

Cropping patterns reflect the distribution of land among different crops at a given time. In India, these patterns vary widely due to its diverse climatic conditions and topography, leading to three primary types:

Monocropping: Involves growing a single crop species over a wide area, which, while efficient in the short term, can lead to soil fertility decline and increased vulnerability to pests.
Mixed Cropping: The simultaneous cultivation of two or more crops on the same field offers a safety net against the failure of one crop and helps in optimizing the use of resources.
Intercropping: This method involves growing two or more crops in proximity, in a specific pattern, to maximize the use of available resources and increase productivity per unit area.

Crop Rotation

Crop rotation involves growing different crops in succession on the same land to improve soil health and reduce reliance on chemical inputs. This practice is categorized based on rotation duration—annual, biennial, and triennial rotations being common examples. Including legumes in rotations enhances soil fertility by fixing atmospheric nitrogen.

Crop Diversification

Crop diversification involves introducing new crops or cropping systems to an existing agricultural setup. This strategy is crucial for mitigating risks associated with climate change, increasing farmer income, generating employment, and boosting agricultural exports.

Alley Cropping

Alley cropping, the practice of growing crops between rows of trees, can improve farm income, reduce soil erosion, enhance water quality, and increase biodiversity on farms.

Ratoon Cropping

Ratoon cropping allows for multiple harvests from a single planting, increasing efficiency and economic benefits. It is applicable to crops like sugarcane, banana, and rice.

Benefits and Challenges of Sustainable Practices

Benefits

Environmental Conservation: Enhances land and water resources, contributing to ecosystem health.
Public Health: Reduces exposure to hazardous agricultural chemicals.
Soil Health: Prevents soil erosion and maintains soil fertility.
Economic Efficiency: Lowers input costs through efficient resource use and increases farm productivity.
Biodiversity: Encourages a variety of life forms, enriching the agricultural landscape.

Challenges

Food Security: Balancing sustainable practices with the need to feed a growing population.
Farmer Livelihood: Ensuring that sustainable agriculture is economically viable for farmers.
Affordability and Accessibility: Making sustainable technologies accessible to small and marginal farmers.
Infrastructure and Awareness: Overcoming issues related to rural infrastructure, market access, and knowledge dissemination.

Government Initiatives

Several government initiatives aim to promote sustainable agriculture in India, including the National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA), Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY), and the introduction of policies to encourage agroforestry and crop diversification.

Agricultural Regionalization in India

Agricultural regionalization in India categorizes various parts of the country based on distinct agricultural practices, crop patterns, and climatic conditions. This classification helps in understanding the agricultural diversity and the strategic development of specific crops in different regions.

Major Agricultural Regions of India

Rice-Jute-Tea Region: Spanning the lowlands, valleys, and river deltas across Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Tripura, Meghalaya, West Bengal, Orissa, parts of Bihar, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and the Tarai region of Uttar Pradesh, this area is conducive to the cultivation of rice, jute, and tea, thanks to its fertile soil and ample water supply.
Wheat and Sugarcane Region: Encompassing parts of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, western Madhya Pradesh, and northeastern Rajasthan, this region’s fertile alluvial soil supports the extensive cultivation of wheat and sugarcane.
Cotton Region: Located in the Deccan plateau, this region benefits from the black cotton soil and moderate rainfall, making it ideal for cotton cultivation alongside crops like jowar, bajra, gram, sugarcane, and wheat.
Maize and Coarse Crops Region: Covering western Rajasthan and northern Gujarat, this region, characterized by scanty rainfall, supports the cultivation of maize, wheat, ragi, bajra, and pulses, particularly in the Mewar plateau.
Millets and Oilseeds Region: This region includes the Karnataka plateau, parts of Tamil Nadu, southern Andhra Pradesh, and eastern Kerala, where the rainfall supports the growth of millets (bajra, ragi, jowar) and oilseeds (groundnut and caster), alongside pulses, mangoes, and bananas.
Fruits and Vegetables Region: Stretching from the Kashmir Valley in the west to Assam in the east, this region produces a variety of fruits and vegetables, including apples, peaches, cherries, plums, apricots, oranges, rice, maize, ragi, potatoes, chillies, and other vegetables, benefiting from the varying rainfall patterns.

Horticulture Sector in India

Horticulture in India encompasses the cultivation of fruits, vegetables, and ornamental plants. India ranks second globally in the production of fruits and vegetables, contributing significantly to the country’s GDP from agriculture.
Data and Significance
Production: India is a leading producer of bananas and mangoes, with horticultural crops contributing about 28% to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of agriculture and accounting for 37% of agricultural export commodities.
Record Production: The 2019-20 period saw the highest-ever horticulture production in India, with 320.77 million tonnes from an area of 25.66 million hectares.
Economic Impact: Horticulture plays a crucial role in the Indian economy by generating employment, supplying raw materials to food processing industries, and offering higher profitability due to high production and export earnings.
Demand and Supply: Horticultural crops are in high demand both domestically and internationally, serving as a significant source of foreign exchange and essential for meeting the country’s estimated demand of 650 MT of fruits and vegetables by 2050.
Challenges: The horticulture sector faces several challenges, including high post-harvest losses, gaps in post-harvest management, lack of supply chain infrastructure, high input costs, and limited market intelligence for exports. Additionally, there’s no Minimum Support Price (MSP) safety net for horticultural producers, and production often falls short of demand.
Government Schemes
Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH): A centrally sponsored scheme aiming for the holistic growth of the horticulture sector.
National Horticulture Mission (NHM): Implemented by State Horticulture Missions in selected districts to enhance horticultural production.
Horticulture Mission for North East & Himalayan States (HMNEH): Focused on the development of horticulture in the northeastern and Himalayan states.

These initiatives are geared towards improving production, ensuring better post-harvest management, and enhancing the overall development of the horticulture sector in India.

To provide a structured overview of important horticulture crops in India, including their characteristics, production status, and major producing regions, the following table has been prepared. This table expands on the initial information, offering a clear and organized view of the significance and cultivation details of each crop.

Crop	Characteristics and Uses	Production Status and Export Information	Major Producing Regions in India
Cashew Nut	Used primarily as a dry fruit.	India is the world’s leading producer of cashew nuts.	Maharashtra (29.9%), Andhra Pradesh (15.7%), Odisha, Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu
Mango	Native to the Indian subcontinent. Known for its variety and taste.	India produces more than half of the world’s mangoes and is the biggest exporter.	Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Odisha. Alphonso mango is a notable export variety.
Apple	A temperate climate fruit that requires a sunny climate with gentle winds.	Requires an average temperature of ~22°C during the growing season.	Kullu and Shimla in Himachal Pradesh, Kashmir Valley, hilly areas of Uttarakhand.
Orange	Grown in almost all states but thrives in rainfed conditions.	Cultivation is concentrated in hilly regions.	Uttarakhand, Kangra Valley in Himachal Pradesh, Darjeeling in West Bengal, Khasi and Jaintia Hills in Meghalaya, Kodagu district in Karnataka, Nagpur in Maharashtra.
Banana	A tropical and subtropical crop, spread all over India.	Peninsular India offers ideal conditions for its cultivation.	Bhusawal in Maharashtra is famous for production. Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra account for about half of total production.

Important Crops in India: Wheat and Rice

Wheat

Wheat stands as a staple food primarily in the northern and north-western parts of India. As of the 2018-19 crop year, India’s wheat production reached a record 101.20 million tonnes (MT), marking a 1.3% increase from the previous year. This positions India as the third-largest wheat producer globally, following the European Union and China.
Leading Producers: Uttar Pradesh leads in wheat production, followed by Punjab and Haryana. These states contribute significantly to the national output, reflecting the crop’s adaptation to the Indo-Gangetic Plains and other fertile regions.
Conditions of Growth: Wheat thrives in a cool growing season with bright sunshine at ripening time. Ideal temperatures range from 10-15°C at sowing to 21-26°C at ripening. It requires 75-100 cm of rainfall and prefers well-drained fertile loamy and clayey loamy soils.
Geographical Distribution: Wheat is primarily cultivated in the rabi season across the Indo-Gangetic Plain, Malwa Plateau, and the Himalayas up to 2,700 m altitude, covering about 85% of the total area under this crop in north and central India.
Export Status: With global leaders like Russia and Ukraine facing production constraints, India’s wheat production is crucial for meeting domestic and international demands. The country anticipates producing 112 million tonnes in the current season.

Rice

Rice is vital for India, both as a staple food and a key agricultural product. In 2018-19, India produced 116.42 MT of rice, making it the second-highest producer after China and the largest exporter globally with 9.8 million metric tons.
Leading Producers: West Bengal is the top rice-producing state, followed by Uttar Pradesh. These regions, along with others like Punjab, Odisha, and Bihar, contribute significantly to India’s rice production.
Conditions of Growth: Rice cultivation requires high temperatures (above 25°C), high humidity, and over 100 cm of annual rainfall. Irrigation supports rice growth in less rainy areas like Punjab and Haryana.
Methods of Cultivation: Various rice cultivation methods include transplantation, drilling, broadcasting, and the Japanese method, each with distinct advantages and limitations. West Bengal experiments with the Pokkali variety, known for its saltwater resistance.
Geographical Distribution: Rice is grown across India, from tropical humid areas to dry but irrigated regions. The crop’s versatility allows it to be cultivated at sea level to 2,000 m altitude, with some states capable of producing two or three crops annually.
International Trade: India’s significant role in the global rice market is underscored by exporting 21 million metric tonnes (MMT) in 2021-22, capturing about 41% of global exports. Despite challenges, rice remains a critical export, emphasizing the importance of maintaining quality and supporting farmers.

Agricultural Crops and Their Characteristics

Agriculture is a cornerstone of the global economy, providing food, raw materials, and employment. Crops, the primary agricultural produce, are diverse and cultivated based on their utility, climatic requirements, and economic value.

Crop Classifications and Conditions

Crop Type	Description	Examples	Climatic Conditions	Soil Type	Notable Producing Areas
Food Crops	Consumed directly by humans	Rice, Wheat, Maize	Varied, depending on specific crop	Varied	India: UP, Bihar, Punjab
Cash Crops	Grown for sale, raw or processed	Cotton, Jute, Tobacco	Requires specific conditions per crop	Requires fertile soils	India: Gujarat, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh
Plantation Crops	Grown in large estates; labor-intensive	Tea, Coffee, Rubber	Tropical and subtropical climates	Well-drained fertile soils	India: Assam, Tamil Nadu, Kerala
Horticulture	Involves fruits and vegetables	Apples, Mangoes, Tomatoes	Depends on the specific fruit or vegetable	Varied, generally fertile	India: Himachal Pradesh, Maharashtra, UP

Specific Crops Overview

Maize: Thrives in semi-arid climates with a temperature range of 21°C-27°C. Key producing states include Karnataka and Bihar.
Barley: Grows well in temperate climates and poor soils. It is less demanding than wheat and cultivated in UP, Bihar, and Madhya Pradesh.
Oats: Prefer cool, moist climates, sensitive to hot, dry weather. Grown in Punjab, Haryana, and parts of MP.
Rye: Known as a “winter hardy cereal,” suitable for sandy soils and grown in Punjab, Haryana, and UP.
Tea: Requires 20-30°C temperature and 150-300 cm rainfall, grown in Assam, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala.
Coffee: Grows in hot, humid climates with temperatures between 15°C-28°C. Major producing states are Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu.
Cocoa: Prefers hot, humid climates and well-drained soils. Significant in Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh.
Tobacco: Needs a frost-free period of 90-120 days, grown in Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat.
Cotton: Requires a tropical or subtropical climate, significant in Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Telangana.
Jute: Needs high humidity (70-90%) and alluvial soils, mainly grown in West Bengal, Bihar, and Assam.
Raw Silk: Karnataka is the largest producer in India, contributing significantly to the country’s silk production.
Natural Rubber: Thrives in hot, humid climates; Kerala leads in production.
Sugarcane: Grows in hot and humid climates, majorly produced in UP, Maharashtra, and Karnataka.
Sugarbeet: Prefers well-drained loamy soils and temperate climates; grown in Maharashtra, Karnataka, AP, and Tamil Nadu.

Economic and Environmental Implications

Crops significantly contribute to the economy, particularly in countries like India where agriculture is a key sector. The choice of crop depends on climatic conditions, soil type, water availability, and market demands. Sustainable agricultural practices are essential to ensure food security, economic stability, and environmental preservation. Innovations in crop cultivation, such as Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF), offer pathways to enhance sustainability and reduce the ecological footprint of agriculture.

Agriculture Revolutions in India

India’s agricultural sector has witnessed several revolutions aimed at enhancing the production and efficiency of various agricultural products. These revolutions have played a crucial role in India’s journey towards self-sufficiency and enhanced productivity in the agricultural sector.

Revolution	Product Related	Father/Person Associated
Protein Revolution	Higher Production (Technology-driven 2nd Green Revolution)	Coined by PM Narendra Modi and FM Arun Jaitley
Yellow Revolution	Oilseed Production (Especially Mustard and Sunflower)	Sam Pitroda
Black Revolution	Petroleum Products	—
Blue Revolution	Fish Production	Dr. Arun Krishnan
Brown Revolution	Leather / Cocoa / Non-Conventional Products	—
Golden Fiber Revolution	Jute Production	—
Golden Revolution	Fruits / Honey Production / Horticulture Development	Nirpakh Tutej
Grey Revolution	Fertilizers	—
Pink Revolution	Onion Production / Pharmaceuticals / Prawn Production	Durgesh Patel
Evergreen Revolution	Overall Production of Agriculture (Started in the 11th 5-year Plan)	—
Silver Revolution	Egg Production / Poultry Production	Indira Gandhi (commonly associated, but not as a direct founder)
Silver Fiber Revolution	Cotton	—
Red Revolution	Meat Production / Tomato Production	Vishal Tewari
Round Revolution	Potatoes	—
Green Revolution	Food Grains	Norman Borlaug, M.S. Swaminathan, William Goud (UK)
White Revolution (Operation Flood)	Milk Production	Verghese Kurien

Notes:

The Green and White Revolutions are among the most significant, with the Green Revolution focusing on increasing food grain production through the use of high-yielding variety seeds, fertilizers, and irrigation, and the White Revolution (Operation Flood) aiming at making India one of the largest producers of milk and milk products.
Some revolutions, like the Protein and Evergreen Revolutions, signify broad-based efforts to enhance overall agricultural productivity using technology and sustainable practices.
The involvement of key individuals such as M.S. Swaminathan, Verghese Kurien, and Sam Pitroda highlights the importance of leadership and innovation in driving agricultural progress in India.
Certain revolutions like the Silver Revolution and the Golden Revolution indicate focused efforts on specific sectors within agriculture, aiming to boost the production of eggs, poultry, fruits, and honey respectively.

These revolutions reflect India’s dynamic approach to addressing the diverse challenges and opportunities within its agricultural sector, contributing to food security, economic development, and sustainability.

Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture

Climate change represents a formidable challenge to agriculture, with far-reaching impacts on productivity, food security, and rural livelihoods.

Climate Change and Agricultural Vulnerability

Data and Findings: Recent years have seen significant agricultural losses in India due to extreme weather events. A staggering 5 million hectares of crops were destroyed in 2021 alone, attributed to cyclonic storms, flash floods, landslides, and cloudbursts. Since 2016, around 36 million hectares of agricultural land have been affected by hydro-meteorological calamities, marking the decade of 2010-2019 as the most turbulent period for agricultural disasters, as assessed by the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO).
Decrease in Productivity: The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has projected that the productivity of key crops such as paddy, wheat, and maize could decline significantly between 2050 and 2080 due to climate change. This reduction in yield is attributed to higher temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and increased pest and weed proliferation.
Economic Impact on Farm Income: The Economic Survey of 2018 highlighted that a rise in temperature by one degree Celsius could lead to a reduction in agricultural incomes by 6.2% during the Kharif season and by 6% during the Rabi season in non-irrigated areas. These figures underscore the direct link between climate change and the economic wellbeing of farmers.
Food Security Risks: The vulnerability of Indian agriculture to climate-induced changes, coupled with the low adaptation capacity of the majority of Indian farmers, poses a significant risk to the country’s food security. It is estimated that by 2030, India will require an additional 70 million tonnes of food grains to meet the demands of a growing population, urbanization, and rising incomes.
Economic Losses: India incurs annual losses of approximately $9-10 billion due to extreme weather events, with nearly 80% of these losses remaining uninsured. This financial burden exacerbates the challenges faced by the agricultural sector in adapting to climate change.

Land Resources and Use Patterns

Land Resources Definition: The FAO defines “land resources” as encompassing the physical, biotic, environmental, infrastructural, and socio-economic components of a land unit, crucial for the productivity and sustainability of agroecosystems.
Operational Land Holding in India: According to the 11th Agriculture Census, operational holdings in India are categorized by size and social groups. Despite the efficiency of small farms in cultivating labor-intensive crops and managing livestock, the small size of these holdings often fails to generate sufficient household income.
Land Use Patterns: The use of land in India is determined by several factors, including water availability, land fertility, climate, and population density. These factors dictate whether land is used for agriculture, construction, industry, or other purposes.

Type of Land Use	Definition	Characteristics/ Notes
Forests	Lands of more than 0.5 hectares, with a tree canopy cover of more than 10 percent, which are not primarily under agricultural or urban land use (FAO).	Includes natural forests and areas designated for reforestation.
Land put to agricultural use	Agricultural land is defined as the land area that is either arable, under permanent crops, or under permanent pastures. Arable land includes land under temporary crops, temporary meadows for mowing or for pasture, land under market or kitchen gardens, and land temporarily fallow (OECD).	Encompasses a wide range of agricultural activities, including crop production and livestock grazing.
Barren and wasteland	Land which is left fallow for more than five years but can be brought under cultivation after improving it through reclamation practices.	Typically lacks vegetation and is not currently used for agriculture but has the potential for future use.
Land put to non-agricultural use	Land under settlements (rural and urban), infrastructure (roads, canals, etc.), industries, shops, etc.	Includes areas developed for residential, commercial, industrial, and infrastructural purposes.
Area under permanent pastures and grazing lands	Permanent pasture is pasture land that is a result of natural growth, including wild grasses, clover, wildflowers, and everything else that grows naturally in a meadow. Grazing land could be pasture or a less natural source of animal feed, such as seeded ryegrass.	Supports livestock grazing and biodiversity, contributing to the ecological balance.
Area under miscellaneous tree crops and groves (not covered in net sown area)	Land under miscellaneous tree crops and groves includes all cultivable land which is not included under net area sown, but is put to some agricultural use. Land under casuarina trees, thatching grass, bamboo, bushes, other groves for fuel, etc.	Utilized for non-conventional agriculture, including forestry and the cultivation of non-food crops.
Culturable wasteland	Land available for cultivation, either taken up or just not taken up once for harvesting, but not harvested over the last five years more than in sequence, including that of the current year.	Represents a reserve of agricultural land that could be brought under cultivation with appropriate measures.
Current fallow	The land which is left without cultivation for less than one or one agricultural year. This practice is adopted for giving the land rest. The land regains the lost fertility through natural processes.	Allows for the restoration of soil fertility through natural processes, typically used in rotation with cultivated crops.
Fallow other than current fallow	This includes all land which was taken up for cultivation but is temporarily out of cultivation for a period of not less than one year and not more than five years.	Land in temporary rest to improve its productivity, not cultivated but planned to be brought back into production.
Net area sown	This represents the total area sown with crops and orchards. Areas sown more than once in the same year are counted only once.	The basis for calculating agricultural productivity and planning crop rotation.

Soil and Land Use for Agricultural Efficiency

Land capability represents a fundamental concept in agriculture and land management, referring to the innate capacity of land to support various uses such as natural vegetation, wildlife habitat, agricultural crops, and human settlements. The determination of land capability is crucial for sustainable land use planning and agricultural productivity.

Determining Land Capability: Land capability assessment involves evaluating the physical and chemical properties of soil groups, which directly influence the suitability of land for specific crops or uses. For instance:

Regur Soil: Ideal for cotton, sugarcane, and citrus fruits due to its rich nutrient content and moisture retention capacity.
Alluvial Soil: Best suited for wheat, rice, maize, sugarcane, pulses, and oilseeds, attributed to its fertile nature and good drainage.

The classification of land into capability regions primarily considers physical parameters such as soil texture, structure, terrain slope, runoff, and climatic factors like temperature and precipitation.

Role of Soil Surveys: The Soil & Land Use Survey of India (SLUSI), operating under the Department of Agriculture, Cooperation & Farmers Welfare, Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare, plays a pivotal role in conducting soil surveys. These surveys lay the groundwork for land capability classification, aiming to optimize land use and enhance agricultural outputs.

In 1960, the All India Soil and Land Use Survey Organization embarked on a land capability survey, which identified eight distinct land use capability classes, divided into two broad categories:

Land Not Suitable for Cultivation

Class V: Highly suitable for grazing and forestry, with a very high livestock carrying capacity, but not for crop cultivation.
Class VI: Very suitable for grazing and forestry, with a moderate livestock carrying capacity, but not for crops.
Class VII: Fairly suitable for grazing or forestry, offering limited livestock carrying capacity.
Class VIII: Only suitable for wildlife, characterized by extreme conditions like severe climates, wet soils, stones, badlands, sandy beaches, marshes, deserts, and nearly barren lands.

Land Suitable for Cultivation

Class I: Excellent arable land without specific farming difficulties.
Class II: Good cultivation land requiring protective measures against erosion or floods.
Class III: Moderately good cultivation land needing attention to erosion control and water conservation.
Class IV: Fairly good land suitable for occasional and limited cultivation, demanding intensive erosion control and drainage.

Key Benefits of Land Capability Classification:

Conservation Guidance: LCC identifies conservation issues and recommends treatments to prevent land degradation, ensuring that land use practices are sustainable.
Efficient Land Use: By understanding the capabilities and limitations of land, planners and farmers can allocate land to its most efficient use, maximizing productivity while minimizing environmental impacts.
Crop Suitability: It helps in selecting the most suitable crops for specific land types, particularly distinguishing between land suitable for intensive agriculture (classes I to IV) and land better suited for other purposes such as pastures, energy plantations, or infrastructure (classes V to VIII).
Understanding Land Degradation

Land degradation refers to the decline in the land’s productivity and its ability to provide ecosystem services. It is a critical environmental issue affecting not just agricultural productivity but also biodiversity, water quality, and climate regulation.

Key Points on Land Degradation:

Desertification: A form of land degradation in drylands, leading to reduced plant cover, soil erosion, and increased vulnerability to climate change.
Extent of Degradation: The Desertification and Land Degradation Atlas of India, developed by ISRO, indicates that 29.77% of India’s Total Geographic Area (TGA) is affected by land degradation as of 2018-19.
Major Contributors: Water erosion, vegetation degradation, and wind erosion are the primary processes contributing to land degradation in India.

Efforts and Challenges in Addressing Land Degradation:

State of India’s Environment 2022: Highlights the need for increased income from sustainable agricultural practices and the importance of expanding forest cover towards achieving the National Forest Policy’s goal of 33.3%.
UNCCD Data: Reveals significant loss of grassland area in India, highlighting the economic impacts of desertification and land degradation globally.

Way Forward: The effective implementation of Land Capability Classification in land use planning is essential for mitigating land degradation and achieving sustainable development goals. Strategies include:

Promoting Sustainable Agricultural Practices: Incorporating practices that maintain or enhance soil health, such as Zero Budget Natural Farming, can help in reversing degradation trends.
Enhanced Reforestation Efforts: Expanding forest cover through reforestation and afforestation programs can restore degraded lands and contribute to biodiversity conservation.
Integrated Land Use Planning: Coordinated efforts that combine agricultural, forestry, and urban planning based on LCC can lead to more sustainable land use patterns.

The integration of land capability classification into national and regional land use planning frameworks offers a pathway to balance economic development with environmental sustainability. By aligning land use practices with the inherent capabilities and limitations of the land, it is possible to reduce the risk of degradation, enhance food security, and support the livelihoods of millions dependent on agriculture.

Significance of Land Capability Classification in Land Use Planning:

Identification of Conservation Needs: LCC helps identify specific conservation challenges associated with different land units and suggests appropriate treatments or management practices to address these issues.
Optimization of Land Use: By understanding the capabilities and limitations of land, planners and farmers can make informed decisions about the most efficient and sustainable uses of land. For example, land suitable for agriculture (classes I to IV) can be differentiated from areas better suited for pasture, energy plantations, infrastructure development, etc. (classes V to VIII).
Crop Suitability: LCC allows for the selection of the most appropriate crops for cultivation on a particular piece of land, considering its physical and chemical properties, thus ensuring higher productivity and sustainability.
Land Degradation: A Growing Concern: Land degradation refers to the decline in the land’s productive capacity, which can be caused by various factors such as erosion, nutrient depletion, water scarcity, and salinization. Desertification, a form of land degradation, specifically affects dryland areas, reducing their productivity through the degradation of vegetation, soil, and other ecosystem services.

Findings from the Desertification and Land Degradation Atlas of India (ISRO):

Extent of Degradation: Approximately 29.77% of India’s Total Geographic Area (TGA) experienced land degradation during 2018-19, marking an increase from previous assessments.
Major Contributors: States like Rajasthan, Maharashtra, and Gujarat, among others, contribute significantly to the country’s desertification/land degradation.
Prevalence: Certain states, including Jharkhand and Rajasthan, show more than 50% of their area under desertification/land degradation.
Primary Causes: Water erosion, vegetation degradation, and wind erosion are the leading causes of land degradation in India.
Notable Impacts: Deforestation in regions like the Shivalik range and the Chambal valley has led to significant soil damage.

Initiatives and Challenges

Agricultural Development:
Income Doubling Initiative: Efforts to double farmers’ income by 2022 have seen an increase in average monthly income, largely due to higher wages and livestock rearing.
Forest Cover Goal: The National Forest Policy aims to increase forest cover to 33.3% of India’s total area, a significant leap from the 21.67% coverage in 2019.
International Commitments:
UNCCD Data: India reported a 31 percent loss of its grassland area over a decade, highlighting the urgent need for sustainable land and grassland management.
Economic Loss: Desertification and land degradation lead to substantial global revenue loss, amounting to 42 billion USD annually.

Causes and Solutions to Land Degradation

Causes of Land Degradation

Growing Demand: Increased need for food, fodder, timber, fuel, and raw materials has escalated pressure on land resources, leading to over-exploitation.
Faulty Agricultural Practices: Intensive irrigation and excessive use of chemicals contribute significantly to land degradation.
Loss of Soil Cover: Deforestation and urbanization lead to the removal of vegetation, increasing soil erosion by water.
Water and Wind Erosion: These natural processes can significantly deteriorate land quality, leading to phenomena like badland topography and desertification.
Climate Change: Rising temperatures and changing rainfall patterns exacerbate desertification and land degradation.
Overgrazing: Unsustainable grazing practices reduce vegetation cover, contributing to soil erosion.
Soil Salinization: Over-irrigation in water-scarce regions leads to increased soil salinity, affecting agricultural productivity.
Unplanned Urbanization: Expansion of urban areas encroaches on natural lands, leading to degradation.

Regions Affected

Punjab-Haryana: Increased soil salinity due to over-irrigation.
Bundelkhand: Subject to gully and rill erosion.
Coastal Areas: Soil salinization due to water intrusion and storms.
Himalayan and Western Ghats: High levels of water erosion.

Consequences of Desertification/Land Degradation

Environmental Impacts: Loss of biodiversity, soil fertility issues, and increased susceptibility to natural calamities.
Economic Impacts: Threats to agricultural productivity leading to poverty and natural disasters like floods and droughts.
Social Impacts: Rising famine, poverty, and social unrest, triggering environmental migration.
Political Impacts: Migration due to desertification can strain local, regional, and international politics.

Governmental Steps to Mitigate Land Degradation

Integrated Watershed Management System: Aimed at restoring ecological balance and creating rural employment.
Desert Development Programme: Launched to rejuvenate natural resources in desert areas.
National Afforestation Programme: Focuses on afforestation of degraded forest lands.
National Action Programme to Combat Desertification: Addresses desertification issues and takes appropriate measures.
National Mission on Green India: Aims to enhance India’s forest cover over ten years.

Global Initiatives

UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD): A legally binding treaty for sustainable land management.
The Bonn Challenge: A global effort to restore degraded and deforested land.
Great Green Wall: An initiative to fight land degradation in Sahel-Saharan Africa.

Solutions to Combat Desertification/Land Degradation

Salt Traps and Irrigation Improvements: Reduce water loss and prevent salt accumulation.
Cover Crops and Crop Rotation: Maintain soil productivity and replenish critical nutrients.
Rotational Grazing: Limits grazing pressure to prevent permanent damage to vegetation and soil.
Terrace Farming and Contour Bunding: Reduce runoff, thereby minimizing soil erosion.
Windbreaks and Sand Dune Stabilization: Protect soil from wind-driven erosion and stabilize dunes.

Institutions for Land Conservation

Institution	Focus Area	Activities/Measures
Indian Institute of Soil and Water Conservation (IISWC)	Bio-engineering measures to check soil erosion due to rainwater runoff.	Develops strategies and technologies for soil and water conservation. Promotes bio-engineering measures to prevent soil erosion.
Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI), Jodhpur	Sand dune stabilization and shelter belt technology to check wind erosion.	Research on stabilizing sand dunes and developing shelter belts. Focuses on techniques to mitigate wind erosion in arid regions.
Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal	Reclamation of saline, sodic, and waterlogged soils.	Develops reclamation technologies, subsurface drainage, and bio-drainage. Promotes agroforestry interventions and develops salt-tolerant crop varieties. Aims to improve the productivity of saline and waterlogged soils.

Benefits of Sustainable Land Management (SLM)

Benefit	Description
Increase Food Security	SLM practices enhance food production, particularly benefiting small landholders by improving agricultural yields.
Improve Water Availability	Helps in the conservation of water resources, leading to better water availability for agricultural and other uses.
Soil Degradation Mitigation	Prevents soil erosion and degradation, enhancing soil quality, structure, and functionality.
Enhance Biodiversity	Supports habitats for various species, thus increasing biodiversity.
Carbon Sequestration	Contributes to climate change mitigation by storing carbon.
Protect Cultural and Natural Landscapes	Maintains the vitality of cultural and natural landscapes, preserving cultural heritage and promoting indigenous knowledge.

Irrigation Systems: Merits and Demerits

Irrigation System

Merits

Demerits

Well and Tube Well

Simple and independent source of irrigation.

Can add to soil fertility through certain chemicals in well water.

More reliable during droughts.

Limited area coverage.

Groundwater levels may fall in drought, reducing water availability.

Overuse can lead to ground drying and reduced agricultural viability.

Canal Irrigation

Provides perennial irrigation and water supply as needed.

Saves crops from drought and increases farm production.

Overflow can cause flooding.

Suitable mainly in plain areas.

Excessive water can raise groundwater level, leading to soil salinity issues.

Tanks Irrigation

Natural and cost-effective.

– Long lifespan.

– Can support fishing, enhancing food resources and income.

Many tanks dry up in dry seasons, failing to provide irrigation when needed.

Evaporation losses.

Water lifting to fields is laborious and costly.

Drip Irrigation

– Minimizes fertilizer and nutrient loss.

– High water application efficiency.

– Reduces soil erosion and weed growth.

Higher initial cost.

Can result in clogging if not properly installed.

– Maintenance can be costly.

Sprinkler Irrigation

– Suitable for most soil types.

– Saves 30%-50% water.

– Increases yield.

– No land bunds required.

Not suitable under high wind or temperature.

Higher initial cost.

Can reduce soil productivity over the long term.

Micro Irrigation

– Effective in saving water and increasing efficiency.

– Reduces water consumption, weed growth, soil erosion, and cultivation cost.

Inefficient in flooding irrigation methods due to significant runoff and anaerobic soil conditions.

– Requires management of continuous drips or streams for optimum plant growth.

Enhancing Agricultural Efficiency through Water Use Efficiency, Micro-Irrigation, and Watershed Management: Agriculture’s sustainability and productivity are significantly influenced by water use efficiency (WUE), innovative irrigation techniques, and integrated watershed management. These approaches aim to optimize water usage, enhance crop yields, and ensure environmental conservation.

Water Use Efficiency (WUE): WUE refers to the optimization of water usage in agriculture, maximizing biomass or grain production per unit of water utilized. It involves meticulous management of water sources, adoption of water-saving technologies, and actions to curb excessive demand. The goal is to create a more sustainable agricultural system that conservatively uses water without compromising crop productivity.
Advantages of Micro-Irrigation: Micro-irrigation, encompassing drip and sprinkler systems, offers several benefits:
Water Conservation

Micro-irrigation significantly reduces water requirements by targeting water delivery, minimizing evaporation, and virtually eliminating runoff.
It prevents waterlogging, a common issue in traditional flood irrigation, by allowing precise water control.

Uniform Water Application: Ensures even distribution of water, so every plant receives an equal amount, leading to efficient irrigation and conservation of resources.
Energy Savings: Operates at lower pressures, requiring less electricity for pumping compared to conventional systems.
Enhanced Chemical Application: Facilitates the direct application of fertilizers to the root zones through fertigation, improving nutrient uptake and reducing fertilizer needs.
Weed and Disease Reduction: Limits weed growth and decreases the prevalence of diseases by focusing water and nutrients directly on the crop rather than surrounding areas.
Success Story: Israel: Israel’s transformation from a water-scarce to a water-surplus nation through the adoption of micro-irrigation practices, particularly drip irrigation, serves as a global benchmark. This approach conserves water while maintaining agricultural productivity.
Challenges in Adopting Micro-Irrigation: Despite governmental support through schemes like the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana, challenges persist, including perceptions of high initial costs, technological complexity, and the suitability for large-scale operations only. Additionally, small landholdings and lack of awareness hinder the widespread adoption of micro-irrigation.
Strategies to Accelerate Micro-Irrigation Adoption: To overcome these challenges, measures such as reducing capital costs, providing technical support, relaxing farm size limitations for subsidies, and streamlining the implementation process are essential.
Fertigation: Fertigation integrates fertilizer application with irrigation, enhancing nutrient availability and uptake. This method is highly efficient, increasing yields while conserving water and nutrients.
National Watershed Project (Neeranchal): The National Watershed Project focuses on the holistic management of watershed areas to conserve natural resources, including water, soil, and forests. Supported by the World Bank, this initiative aims to improve agricultural yields and resource conservation outcomes sustainably.

UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

1. Which of the following factors/policies were affecting the price of rice in India in the recent past? (2020)

Minimum Support Price
Government’s trading
Government’s stockpiling
Consumer subsidies

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

(a) 1, 2 and 4 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only

2. In India, which of the following can be considered as public investment in agriculture? (2020)

Fixing Minimum Support Price for agricultural produce of all crops.
Computerization of Primary Agricultural Credit Societies
Social Capital development
Free electricity supply to farmers
Waiver of agricultural loans by the banking system
Setting up cold storage facilities by the governments.

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

(a) 1, 2 and 5 only
(b) 1, 3, 4 and 5 only
(c) 2, 3 and 6 only
(d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6

3. What is/are the advantage/advantages of implementing the ‘National Agriculture Market’ scheme? (2017)

1. It is a pan-India electronic trading portal for agricultural commodities.
2. It provides the farmers access to nationwide markets, with prices commensurate with the quality of their produce.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

4. Which of the following is/are the advantage / advantages of practicing drip irrigation? (2016)

1. Reduction in weed
2. Reduction in soil salinity
3. Reduction in-soil erosion

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) None of the above is an advantage of practising drip irrigation.

5. The Fair and Remunerative Price (FRP) of sugarcane is approved by the : (2015)

(a) Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs.
(b) Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices.
(c) Directorate of Marketing and Inspection, Ministry of Agriculture
(d) Agricultural Produce Market Committee

Consider the following statements: (2015)

1. The Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programme was launched during 1996-97 to provide loan assistance to poor farmers.
2. The Command Area Development Programme was launched in 1974-75 for the development of water-use efficiency.

6. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

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