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SANGAM AGE

Introduction

The Sangam Age extends from the 3rd century BC to the 3rd century AD in South India, also known as Muchchangam.

Sources to study Sangam Age

South India during Mauryan times

Asokan edicts (c. 270-30 BCE) reveal south India’s political landscape.

• Rock Edict II: It mentions neighboring Tamil rulers like Cholas, Pandyas, Keralaputras and Satiyaputra and provisions for medical treatment for humans and animals.
• Between Mauryan decline and Satavahana rise, small principalities emerged, evidenced by coins and inscriptions.

The Sangam Age

• Three dynasties ruled during the Sangam Age – the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas.
• The Pandyas are believed to have patronized the Tamil Sangams, facilitating the compilation of Sangam poems.

three Sangams over the years

Sangam texts:

Ettuthogai and Pathupattu collections have about 2400 poems composed by panar (wandering bards) and pulavar (poets).

Other  works:

PatinenKilkanakku texts include eighteen texts, and deals with ethics and moral codes.

• Thirukkural by Tolkappiyar (Tamil grammatical text) and
• Silappadikaram by Ilango Adigal and Manimekalai by Seethalai Sathanar are the two important epics useful for insights into cultural and religious history
  • “Silappadikaram” narrates a love story involving Kovalan, a dignitary, who chooses Madhavi, a courtesan from Kaveripattanam, over his wedded wife Kannagi, who hails from a noble family.
  • “Manimekalai” follows the adventures of the daughter born to Kovalan and Madhavi, exploring her journey and experiences.

Women Poets of the Sangam

• There were thirty women poets who composed more than 150 poems.
• The most prominent was Avvaiyar.
• Others include Allur Nanmullaiyaar, Kaakkaipadiniyar, Kavarpendu, Nalveliyaar, Okkur Masaathiyar, and Paarimakalir.

The Muvendar or three crowned kings

• They governed agrarian lands, commerce, and urban areas.
• Produced valuable goods: pepper, ivory from elephants, pearls from the sea, and precious gems appreciated in the West. Also Created muslin and silk.
• Engaged in trade with Hellenistic Egypt, Arabia, and the Malay archipelago.

The Cholas

They ruled central & northern Tamil Nadu mostly Kaveri delta later known as Cholamandalam or Coromandel. Present in North-east territory of Pandyas.

• Capital: Uraiyur (Known for cotton trade)
  • The inaugural monarch to rule from Uriyur was Uruvappahrer Ilam Set Senni.
• State emblem: Tiger
• In the 2nd Century BC, King Elara conquered Sri Lanka and ruled over 50 years.

The Cholas weakened as the Cheras and Pandyas expanded; Pallavas further diminished their influence from the 4th to 9th century AD.

The Cheras

• Cheras governed central & northern Kerala and Kongu region in Tamil Nadu.
• 2 main Chera branches: 1st branch ruled Vanji and 2nd Poraiya branch ruled Karur.
  • Controlled west coast ports like Musiri, Tondi.
  • Vanji is identified as Karur in Tamil Nadu or Tiruvanchaikkalam in Kerala by scholars.
• State emblem: ‘bow and arrow’ (featured in coins)
• Pugalur inscriptions near Karur mention 3 generations of Chera kings.
  • Prominent kings include Imayavaramban, Nedun-cheralathan and Chenguttuvan.
• Patitrupathu discusses 8 Chera kings, their territories, and fame.
• Chellirumporai minted coins in his name.
• Some Cheras issued copper and lead coins with Tamil-Brahmi legends, imitating Roman coins.

Important kings

After the 2nd century, Chera kingdom declined.

The Pandyas

• Capital – Madurai and Main port – Korkai
  • Korkai is mentioned in the Periplus as “Kolkoi”, known for pearl fishery and chank diving.
  • Megasthenes mentioned about the Pandya kingdom being famous for pearls.
    • Pandya society was matriarchal.
  • State Emblem: The fish (a double carp inscribed on their flags)
  • The Pandya rulers benefited from Roman trade, dispatching envoys to Emperor Augustus.
  • They invaded Southern Kerala and controlled the port of Nelkynda near Kottayam.
  • Horses were imported by sea into the kingdom.
  • The Mangulam Tamil-Brahmi inscription references a Pandya king named Nedunchezhiyan from the second century BCE.

Important Kings

The Pandyan rule began to decline due to the invasions of the Kalabhras.

Sangam Polity

• The thinai classification reflects varying socio-economic developments in different localities during the Sangam Age.
• This classification also extends to political forms with three levels of rulers:

Sangam Society

• There were pronounced social inequalities during the Sangam era.
  • The affluent dwelled in brick and mortar houses, while the poor lived in huts and simpler structures.
• Brahmanas
  • They first appeared during the Sangam era in Tamil land.
  • They consumed meat and wine.
• Captains of the army received the title “Enadi.”
• Vallalas, or rich peasants, held civil and military offices under both Cholas and Pandyas.
• The ruling caste was referred to as Arasar.
• Lowest-class women (kadaisiyar) performed agricultural work, akin to slaves.
• Low-class artisans (Pulaiyans) were responsible for crafting charpayis.

Sangam Economy

• Revenue:
  • Transit duties collected from merchants who moved their goods from place to place.
  • King paid for the army, poets and priests, who were mainly brahmanas.
  • Evidence of taxation is found at highways and in the port of Kaviripattinam.
• Agriculture:
  • Produced paddy, ragi and sugarcane
  • Tamil region produced grains, fruit, pepper and turmeric
• Craft production: Bronze vessels, beads, goldwork, textiles, shell bangles, ornaments, glass, iron smithy, and pottery making.
  • Hubs for craft production: Urban centers like Arikamedu, Uraiyur, Kanchipuram, Kaviripattinam, Madurai, Korkai, and Pattanam in Kerala
    • “Maduraikanchi” describes day and night markets offering diverse crafted items.
  • Trade: The scarcity of raw materials led to the exchange of gemstones in a prevalent barter system.

• Barter was common in trade, alongside the use of coins.

• Roman gold and silver coins found in hoards in southern India, including Coimbatore.

• Evidence of Long distance trade:

• Archaeological sites demonstrate long-distance trade, including links to the Roman Empire and Southeast Asia.
• Early historic ports revealed Roman amphorae, glassware, indicating active maritime trade.
• Pottery inscriptions indicate non-Tamil-speaking traders in Sangam Age craft centers and towns.
• Sangam text “Manimegalai” mentions Magadha artisans, Maratha mechanics, Malva smiths, and Yavana carpenters working with Tamil craftsmen.

• Trade-related terms like vanikan, chattan, and nigama appear in Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions.
• Umanar or salt merchants, traveled in bullock carts with their families for trade.
• Chattu referred to mobile merchants or itinerant traders.

Army

• The state sustained a standing army funded by taxes levied on the peasantry.
• This army comprised various units including chariots pulled by oxen, elephants, cavalry, and infantry.
• Nobles, princes, or captains typically rode elephants, while the commander would often lead from a chariot.

Arguments for the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas being pre-state chiefdoms:

• Lack of social stratification.
• Absence of clear territorial associations.
• Destructive warfare hindering agricultural surplus production.
• No evidence of taxation, unlike North Indian governments.

Counter-arguments supporting the existence of organized states:

• According to Sangam literature, Social differentiation is evident in the Marutham region.
• The Muvendar exhibit clear territorial associations, supported by Greco-Roman texts from the first century CE.
• Territorial expansion through warfare was a prominent theme in Puratthinai.
• Trade played a significant role between the late first century BCE and the third century CE, indicating economic organization and governance.

Ideology and Religion

Buddhism

• The emergence of formal religious activities can be traced back to the time of Asoka, during which Buddhism spread to South India and Sri Lanka.
• Legend has it that Asoka’s daughter brought a Bodhi tree to Sri Lanka.
• There are legends suggesting Chandragupta Maurya’s presence in Karnataka before Asoka’s reign.
• Buddhism made a significant impact in South India, particularly in the Krishna and Godavari delta regions of Andhra Pradesh. Archaeological sites such as Amaravathi and Nagarjunakonda offer evidence of this influence.
• In Tamil Nadu, Kaviripattinam and Kanchipuram have remnants of Buddhist Stupas, although Buddhism is less widespread compared to Jainism.

Jainism

• Jainism had a robust presence in Tamil Nadu, as indicated by the existence of numerous cave shelters adorned with Tamil Brahmi inscriptions.
• While the extent of their influence on the general populace remains uncertain, there is evidence suggesting that merchants and devotees supported Jain monks by offering rock shelters and other provisions.
• In the post-Sangam era, Jains made noteworthy contributions to Tamil literature, enriching the cultural and literary landscape of the region.

Brahmanism

• The onset of Brahminism can be traced back to the support of Vedic sacrifices by prominent rulers such as the Satavahanas, Sangam kings, and Ikshvahus, as documented in Sangam texts.
• Sangam texts also provide evidence of Brahmin migration and the performance of Vedic rituals, although the varnasrama ideology had not firmly established itself in Tamil Nadu at that time.
• Additionally, the worship of Vishnu is mentioned in these texts, indicating a diverse religious landscape.
• Despite the influence of Brahminism, the megalithic tradition of providing offerings for the dead, such as paddy, persisted.
• While cremation was introduced, inhumation (burial) remained a practiced funerary rite.
• Local deities like Murugan, also known as Subramaniya, continued to be revered by the populace alongside the emerging Brahminical practices.

Age of Kalabhras – Post Sangam Period

• The period between the Sangam Age and the Pallava-Pandya era (approximately 300 CE to 600 CE) is known as the Kalabhra age in Tamil history.
• Traditionally considered a “dark age” due to the disappearance of the three traditional Tamil kingdoms,
• It was during this period that significant Tamil literary works were produced, including the Tirukkural, Silappathikaram, and Manimekalai.
• Jainism and Buddhism gained influence during this time, leading orthodox Vedic-Puranic scholars to depict the Kalabhra rulers negatively. Later the rulers embraced the orthodox Vedic-Puranic religion, particularly the Bhakti cults of Saivism and Vaishnavism.
• Recent interpretations view this era as a transition period, with the emergence of larger state societies under the Pallavas in northern Tamil Nadu and the Pandyas in the south.
• The influence of Jainism and Buddhism on society remained strong, leading to some resistance from Bhakti saints.
• Inscriptions at Pulangurichi in Sivagangai district mention two kings, Chendan and Kurran, identified by some as Kalabhra rulers.
• The Kalabhra kingdom was eventually overthrown by the Pandyas in the mid-sixth century CE.

UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

1.  Which one of the following explains the practice of Vattakirutal as mentioned in Sangam poems? [UPSC CSE 2023]

a)  Kings employing women bodyguards
b)  Learned persons assembling in royal courts to discuss religious and philosophical matters
c)  Young girls keeping watch over agricultural fields and driving away birds and animals
d)  A king defeated in battle committing ritual suicide by starving himself to death

2.  With reference to the cultural history of medieval India, consider the following statements: [UPSC CSE 2016]

1.  Siddhas (Sittars) of Tamil region were monotheistic and condemned idolatry.
2.  Lingayats of Kannada region questioned the theory of rebirth and rejected the caste hierarchy.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a)  1 only
b)  2 only
c)  Both 1 and 2
d)  Neither 1 nor 2