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KINGDOMS OF SOUTH

Introduction

South India witnessed intense conflict between the Chalukyas of Badami and the Pallavas of Kanchi from the 6th to 9th centuries AD. Despite the conflicts, this period saw remarkable advancements in culture, literature, and various art forms in the region.

CHALUKYAS

Sources to Study

• Inscriptions: The inscriptions on the Allahabad Pillar attributed to Samudragupta and the Aihole inscription associated with Pulikesin II offer insights into the Pallava-Chalukya confrontation.
• Literature:
  • The accounts of Arab travelers and geographers such as Sulaiman, Al-Masudi, and Ibn Hauka offer insights into India’s socio-political and economic landscapes.
  • Kannada literary works like Kavirajamarga and Vikramarjuna-vijayam (also known as Pampabharata by Pampa).
  • Nannaya’s Mahabharatam in Telugu.
• Poems:
  • Thevaram, authored by Appar (Thirunavukkarasar), Sambandar (Thirugnanasambandar), and Sundarar; along with Thiruvavasagam by Manickavasagar.
  • The Vaishnavite Azhwars’ poetry, eventually compiled as the Nalayira Divya Prabhandam.
  • Saiva literature, revered as the Panniru Tirumurai.

Important Rulers

Administration

Religion

• They were patrons of both Saivism and Vaishnavism, supporting temples and religious activities associated with both traditions.
  • Brahmin groups from the Gangetic regions were invited to conduct rituals and ceremonies in temples.
  • Notable rulers like Kirtivarman, Mangalesa, and Pulikesin II conducted yagnas (sacrificial rituals). Titles such as Parama-Vaishnava and Parama-Maheswara were conferred upon them.
• They accorded importance to Kartikeyan, the war god, and Saiva monasteries served as centers for promoting Saivism.
• Heterodox sects like Jainism were also patronized, with donations of land and support.
  • Ravikirti, the poet-laureate of Pulakesin II, was a Jain scholar.
  • Kirtivarman II oversaw the construction of a Jain temple in Annigere during his reign.
  • Prince Krishna appointed Gunapatra, a Jain monk, as his mentor.
  • Pujyapatar, the author of JainentriyaViyakarnam, was a contemporary Jain monk during the rule of Chalukyan ruler
• Hiuen Tsang noted the existence of numerous Buddhist centers, with followers of both Hinayana and Mahayana sects residing there.

Literature

• Sanskrit was used in pillar inscriptions such as those found at Aihole and
• A seventh-century inscription acknowledges Kannada as the local language and Sanskrit as the language of culture.
• A chieftain of Pulikesin II authored a Sanskrit grammar work called
• The Aihole Inscription of Pulakesin II, located in the Megudi Jain temple in Aihole, Karnataka, dates back to 635 AD and was composed by the poet Ravikriti.
  • This inscription serves as a Prashasti, extolling the achievements of the Chalukya dynasty, with a particular focus on King Pulikesin II, also known as Sathyasraya (the abode of truth).
  • It provides a historical account of the dynasty’s victories, including the notable triumph over Harshavardhana.

Architecture

• The Chalukyas introduced the innovative technique of constructing temples using soft sandstones.
• Their temple architecture is categorized into two main types: Excavated cave temples and Structural temples.
  • Badami is renowned for both types of temples, featuring four caves, with the largest one dedicated to Vishnu and built by Mangalesa.
  • Pattadakal, exemplified by the Virupaksha temple, and Aihole, known for the Lad Khan temple, are famous for their structural temples.
• In Pattadakal, the Chalukyas erected more than ten temples, showcasing the evolution of Chalukya architectural styles.

Paintings

• The Chalukyas embraced the Vakataka style of painting in their artistic endeavors.
  • Numerous paintings within the Chalukya realm depict various incarnations of Vishnu.
• One of the most renowned Chalukya paintings is located in the palace constructed by King Mangalesan (597-609 AD).
  • This particular artwork portrays a scene of a royal ball attended by members of the royal family and other dignitaries.

PALLAVAS

There exists no definitive consensus among scholars regarding the origin of the Pallavas. Some theories suggest a connection to the Pahlavas, also known as Parthians, while others propose a native origin in South India, possibly with some northern Indian ancestry.

• The term “Pallava” is believed to derive from the Sanskrit word “pallava,” meaning “creeper,” akin to the Tamil word “tondi.”
• Initially a pastoral local tribe, the Pallavas established their dominance in the region known as Tondaimandalam, located between the north Pennar and north Vellar rivers.
  • This area encompassed southern Andhra Pradesh and northern Tamil Nadu, with their capital situated at Kanchi.
• During their rule, Kanchi, modern-day Kanchipuram, emerged as a significant temple town and a hub of trade and commerce.

Sources to Study

• Buddhist texts such as the Deepavamsa and Mahavamsa, written in Pali, offer insights into the socio-religious and cultural landscape during the Pallava era.
• Accounts from Chinese travelers like Hiuen Tsang and Itsing also provide valuable information about this period.
• Periyapuranam, authored by Sekizhar, and Mathavilasa Prahasanam, composed by Mahendravarman I in Sanskrit, serve as crucial sources for studying the Pallava period.

Important Rulers

Administration

• Kings: The concept of kingship was perceived as of divine descent and inherited through generations. Kings assumed grandiose titles such as Maharajadhiraja, influenced by North Indian traditions.
• Queens: Pallava queens typically did not play active roles in the administration of the kingdom. Instead, they were involved in religious activities such as constructing shrines, installing deity images, and supporting temples through endowments.
  • An inscription in the Kailasanatha temple in Kanchipuram features the image of Queen Rangapataka, the consort of Rajasimha.
• Council of Ministers: They governed with the support of a council of ministers, who held significant authority in decision-making.
  • Certain ministers held semi-royal titles and might have been selected from the ranks of feudal lords or other influential individuals within the kingdom.
  • Amatyas: Counsellors who provided advice and guidance to the king
  • Mantrins: Ministers responsible for managing diplomatic relations.
  • Rahasyadhikrita: Private secretary who handled confidential matters.
  • Manikkappandaram/Kappan: Treasury officer in charge of managing royal finances and accounts.
  • Kodukkappillai: Officer responsible for overseeing the distribution of gifts.
  • Kosaadhyaksa: Treasury supervisor.
• Judiciary: Judicial courts were referred to as Adhikarna Mandapa.
  • Dharmadhikarins served as judges within these judicial courts.
  • Fines were specified in the Kasakudi plates of Nandivarman, with distinctions between Karanadandam (fines in superior court) and Adhikaranadandam (fines at the district level).
• District officers closely collaborated with local autonomous institutions and provided counsel to provincial governors.
  • Local autonomous bodies were formed based on various social groups such as castes, guilds, and crafts.
  • Policy implementation was facilitated through meetings between district representatives and assemblies of villagers.

Land Grants

• Land ownership was centralized in the king, who held the power to grant revenue and land to officials and Brahmins.
• Crown lands were commonly cultivated through tenant farming arrangements.
• Villages with diverse caste populations were required to pay land revenue.
• Brahmadeya villages were bestowed upon individual Brahmins or Brahmin groups, exempting them from taxation and fostering prosperity.
• Devadana villages were gifted to temples, contributing to their wealth and influence.
  • Revenue from these villages was directed to temple authorities rather than the state treasury.
  • Temple authorities supported villages by offering employment opportunities in temple services.
  • Over time, temples became pivotal to rural life, enhancing the importance of devadana villages in the socio-economic landscape.

Life in Villages

• The village assembly, known as Sabha, was responsible for managing various village affairs such as land allocation, irrigation, record-keeping, and addressing criminal matters.
  • It operated under the authority of the district council, which collaborated with the district administration known as
  • Sabha was a formal institution, it closely interacted with the urar, an informal village gathering.
• The village headman acted as a liaison between the village assembly and the official administration.
• Villages predominantly populated by Brahmins maintained meticulous records of Sabha and council proceedings.
• Village courts were also tasked with adjudicating minor criminal cases.
• At a higher administrative level in towns and districts, courts were presided over by government officials, with the king serving as the ultimate arbiter of justice.

Tank Irrigation

• Eripatti, also known as tank land, was a distinct category of land exclusively found in South India.
  • This land was donated by individuals, with the revenue generated reserved for the maintenance of the village tank.
  • The village tank played a crucial role in storing rainwater for irrigation during prolonged dry periods.
  • Constructed with brick or stone lining, the tank was built through collaborative efforts of the village, and its water was shared among all cultivators.
• A special tank committee, appointed by the village, was responsible for overseeing the distribution of irrigation water.
• Water distribution was facilitated through canals equipped with sluices to regulate water levels and prevent overflow at the source.

Revenue and Taxation

• Revenue in the Pallava period primarily originated from rural sources, with urban and mercantile institutions being less organized.
• Detailed information on land revenues and taxation during the Pallava era is provided in copper plate inscriptions documenting land grants.
• Villages were subject to two main taxes:
  • Land revenue, paid by cultivators to the state, typically ranges from 1/6th to 1/10th of the produce.
  • Local taxes, utilized for village services such as repairing irrigation systems and lighting temples.
• Additional taxes were imposed on various professions and activities, including those related to draught cattle, toddy extraction, pottery, and goldsmithing, especially when state land tax revenues were insufficient.
• War loot also contributed significantly to the state’s revenue, highlighting the significance of warfare in Pallava governance and economy.

Army

• State revenue in the Pallava period was primarily allocated to maintain the standing army, directly controlled by the King.
  • The army consisted of foot soldiers, cavalry, and a limited number of elephants.
• Chariots, once prominent, became obsolete and ineffective in the hilly terrains where much of the fighting occurred.
• The cavalry was recognized as effective but incurred substantial costs, particularly due to the need to import horses.
• The Pallavas established a navy and built dockyards at Mamallapuram and However, their naval strength was notably smaller compared to the Cholas.
• Sculptures at the Vaikunta Perumal temple in Kanchipuram depicted significant events from the reign of Nandivarama Pallava, underscoring the importance of warfare in Pallava society.

Trade

• Kanchipuram held significant importance as a bustling trading center during the Pallava period.
• Merchants were required to obtain licenses to trade their goods, indicating a regulated commercial environment.
• Initially, a barter system prevailed, but the Pallavas later introduced gold and silver coins, facilitating monetary transactions.
• Merchant organizations such as Manigramam were established to oversee and regulate trade activities.
• Traders formed guilds, categorizing themselves as Sudesi, Nanadesi, Ainurruvar, and others.
  • The primary guild operated in Aihole, facilitating trade and commerce.
  • Foreign merchants, known as Nanadesi, had a distinct flag featuring a bull emblem at the center and held the privilege of issuing vira-sasanas.
    • Vira-Sasanas were inscriptions authored by guilds, glorifying their courageous and heroic exploits as traders and warriors.

Maritime Trade

• The Pallavas engaged in maritime trade with Southeast Asia, fostering economic ties with the region.
• The jurisdiction of Pallava trade guilds extended over Southeast Asia, with their leaders referred to as Pattanswamy, Pattnakilar, and Dandanayaka in inscriptions, and their members identified as Ayyavole-Parameswariyar.
• Foreign trade activities included exporting commodities such as spices, cotton textiles, precious stones, and medicinal plants to various regions, including Java, Sumatra, Cambodia, Sri Lanka, China, and
• Mamallapuram played a pivotal role as a key seaport facilitating trade with Southeast Asian kingdoms such as Kambuja (Cambodia), Champa (Annam), and Srivijaya (the southern Malaya peninsula and Sumatra).
• On the West Coast, foreign traders, primarily Arabs, gradually dominated trade, with Indian traders transitioning into suppliers of goods rather than carriers.

Society

• The caste system became firm, with Sanskrit gaining high esteem as the language of learning and culture.
• Aryanization and northern influences on the southern region accelerated, as evidenced by the issuance of royal grants by Pallava kings.
• Kanchipuram retained its significance as a major center of education and scholarship.
• Followers of the Vedic religion, particularly devoted to the worship of Shiva, proliferated during this period.
  • Renowned Shaiva (Nayanmars) and Vaishnava (Alwars) poet-saints flourished during the reign of Mahendravarman.
• Brahmins experienced an elevation in status, receiving substantial land grants and assuming influential roles as royal advisors in literature, astronomy, law, and various professions.
• Sat-kshatryas, a subgroup within the Kshatriya caste, played a pivotal role in governance, involved in both trade and warfare and holding the privilege of Vedic study.
• Lower strata of society primarily engaged in agricultural, husbandry, and artisanal occupations, while those involved in scavenging, fishing, dry-cleaning, and leather works existed outside the traditional varna system.

Religion

In the eighth century, Mathas gained prominence, serving as multifunctional institutions that combined aspects of a rest house, feeding center, and educational facility.

Art and Architecture

• Mahendravarman I is credited with introducing rock-cut temples in the Pallava territory, characterized by a mandapa type structure. These temples typically feature a pillared hall or mandapa in front and a small shrine located at the rear or sides.
• The Mandagappattu inscription highlights that shrines dedicated to Brahma, Isvara, and Vishnu were constructed without the use of traditional materials such as brick, timber, metal, and mortar, indicating the innovative architectural techniques employed during this period.
• The Kailasanatha temple in Kanchipuram contains an inscription featuring the image of Queen Rangapataka, consort of Rajasimha, underscoring the royal patronage extended to religious and architectural endeavors.
• Initially, the early Pallava rulers issued their charters in Prakrit, but later successors transitioned to issuing charters in Sanskrit, reflecting a shift in administrative practices and cultural influences over time.

Literature

• Sanskrit served as the official language in the royal court, leading to its widespread adoption in literary circles.
• Kanchi boasted a renowned university comparable to Nalanda, alongside several other Sanskrit colleges.
• Mahendravarman I himself composed the Mathavilasa Prahasanam in Sanskrit, showcasing his literary prowess.
• Two exceptional works in Sanskrit literature set the standard for literary excellence in the south: the Kiratarjuniya by Bharavi and the Dashakumaracharita by Dandin.
  • Dandin of Kanchipuram, renowned for his treatise on rhetoric titled Kavyadarsa, is believed to have spent some time in the Pallava court, further enriching the literary ambiance of the era.

KADAMBAS

• The Kadambas rose to prominence around Talagunda, situated in north-western Karnataka, circa 345 AD.
• Founded by Mayurasharman, the dynasty gained strength by defeating the Pallavas, with support from local forest tribes.
• Eventually, they integrated into the Chalukyan political framework around the 6th century AD, serving as vassals to both the Chalukyas and later the Rashtrakutas.

Re-Emergence of Kadambas:

• In the 11th century, two notable factions claiming descent from the Banavasi Kadamba lineage emerged:

Both factions asserted their legitimacy by adopting the title “Banavasipuravaradhisvara,” indicating their association with the ancient capital Banavasi in Karnataka.

Administration:

• The Kadambas assumed prestigious titles such as Konkanadhisa, Konkana Chakravarti (Lord of Konkana), Paschim-Samudradhisvara (Lord of the western ocean), and Mahamandaleshvara, signifying their authority and dominion.
• Shashthideva, a ruler of the Kadamba dynasty, conducted significant religious ceremonies such as Tulapurusa and Ashvamedha sacrifices, illustrating their devotion to religious practices.
• The administrative structure of the region involved division into visayas (districts), overseen by maneyas.
  • Villages (gramas) were governed by officials like grama mukhya, Urodeya, or Gavunda, who managed local affairs, including military and judicial functions.

Economy and Trade:

• Land grants were prevalent, with references to Tribhoga, Sarvanamasya, and Talavritti land grants indicating land ownership by individuals and religious entities.
• Generous grants were extended to Buddhists, Jainas, and Shaivas, with evidence of numerous Buddhist monasteries and mathas documented by Hiuen Tsang in Banavasi.
• Maritime activities flourished, particularly under the Kadambas of Goa.
  • Chandapur, their capital, emerged as a significant maritime center.
  • Ganadevi, their prominent port in the modern Surat district, facilitated trade links with the East African coast.
• Jayakesi I’s adoption of the title Paschim-Samudradhishvara underscores the importance of oceanic trade in their economy.

UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

1.  Consider the following events in the history of India: [UPSC CSE 2020]

1)   Rise of Pratiharas under King Bhoja
2)  Establishment of Pallava power under Mahendravarman-I
3)  Establishment of Chola power by Parantaka-I
4)  Pala dynasty founded by Gopala

What is the correct chronological order of the above events, starting from the earliest time?

(a) 2-1-4-3
(b) 3-1-4-2
(с) 2-4-1-3
(d) 3-4-1-2

2.  With reference to ancient South India, Korkai, Poompuhar, and Muchiri were well known as : [UPSC CSE 2023]

(a) Capital Cities
(b) Ports
(c) Centres of iron and steel making
(d) Shrines of Jain tirthankars

3.  In the context of the history of India, consider the following pairs: [UPSC CSE 2016]

Term             Description

1.  Eripatti : Land, revenue from which was set apart for the maintenance of the village tank
2.  Taniyurs : Villages donated to a single Brahmin or a group of Brahmins
3.  Ghatikas : Colleges generally attached to the temples

Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

a)  1 and 2
b)  3 only
c)  2 and 3
d)  1 and 3