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INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

Introduction

The Indus Valley Civilization, or the Harappan Culture, appeared in the northwestern part of India and Pakistan in the third millennium BC and represents the first phase of urbanization in India.

Polity

• Central authority likely helped create similar cultures in pottery, seals, weights, bricks, script, and labor organization across Harappan sites.
• Some archaeologists believe that there weren’t specific rulers, and everyone had equal status in Harappan society.
• Other scholars suggest that while there might not have been a single ruler, there were possibly multiple rulers, with Mohenjodaro having its ruler, Harappa another, and so on.
• Merchants could have been among the ruling class, rather than priests, unlike in the cities of lower Mesopotamia.

TOWN PLANNING AND STRUCTURES

In ancient Egypt, buildings typically used dried bricks for construction, while baked bricks were more common in Mesopotamia. However, the Harappan cities extensively used baked bricks compared to both Egypt and Mesopotamia.

• Cities were often split into two sections:
  • Lower Part: Where common people lived and worked.
  • Citadel or Raised Part: A smaller area, which housed important buildings like granaries, workshops, and public structures.
• The drainage system in Harappan cities was quite sophisticated – every house was linked to street drains. These drains consisted of main channels constructed from bricks set in mortar, covered with removable bricks or mortar for cleaning purposes.

Faith and Belief System

• The Harappan civilization was not focused solely on religion; it had a secular character.
• Temples were not discovered in the archaeological findings, but worship was inferred from statues and figurines.
• The Harappans viewed the Earth as a fertility goddess, indicated by a plant growing from the embryo of a woman in one of the terracotta figurines.
• A seal depicts a male deity in a yogi’s sitting posture with three heads and horns, surrounded by elephants, tigers, rhinoceros, and buffalo. This image is reminiscent of ‘Pasupati Mahadeva’ (Proto-Shiva).
• Religious practices in the Harappan civilization included worship of the Yoni, Phallic (lingam) worship, animal worship (zoolatry), use of fire altars, and reverence for the pipal tree.
• Many amulets have been discovered, likely used to protect against ghosts and evil spirits.

HARAPPAN SCRIPT

• The oldest script in the Indian subcontinent is written from right to left.
• This script remains undeciphered, and it doesn’t seem to be related to scripts from West Asia.
• Unlike alphabetical scripts where each sign represents a vowel or consonant, this script contains numerous pictographs, estimated to be between 250 and 400 in number.

Weights and Measures

• Weights were often made of chert stone and were square-shaped without any markings.
• The units of weight were in multiples of 16, such as 16, 64, 160, 320, and 640.
  • The tradition of using multiples of 16 continues in India, where 16 annas make up one rupee.
• They used a binary numbering system, which means they counted in doubles: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, and so on.
• For measuring, they used sticks with marks indicating measurements; one such stick was made of bronze.

SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS

• Harappan society was mostly urban and consisted mainly of the middle class.
• The society had three main social groups:
  • Rulers
  • Wealthy merchants
  • Poor laborers who lived in the lower parts of the city.

Agriculture

The agricultural surplus was an important stimulus for a number of developments.

• Terracotta models of ploughs found at Cholistan and Banawali.
• At Kalibangan, fields showed two sets of furrows at right angles, indicating a double cropping system.
• Bull representations on seals and terracotta sculptures suggest their use in ploughing.
• Crops
  • Wheat, barley, lentils, chickpeas, sesame, mustard, and millets.
  • Used animal-drawn wooden ploughs and stone sickles.
  • Rice cultivation was found in Lothal and Rangpur (Gujarat).
• IRRIGATION: Utilized canal and well irrigation

Peasants paid taxes in cereals, which were stored in granaries for wages and emergencies, similar to practices in Mesopotamia.

Animal Domestication

Harappans practiced pastoralism, which means they raised animals.

• The Harappan cattle, known as Zebu, were a large breed and often depicted on their seals.
• They domesticated various animals: oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheep, fowl (birds), pigs, dogs, cats, asses (donkeys), and camels.
• Humped bulls were particularly favored among the domesticated animals.
• Fish and birds were part of their diet.
• Archaeological evidence indicates the presence of boar, deer, and gharial (a type of crocodile).
• Horses were not known to the Harappans.
• They were aware of elephants and rhinoceros (from Amri), but lions were unknown to them.

Trade and Exchange

• Harappan seals and materials found in Sumerian and Mesopotamian sites.
• Harappans imitated cosmetics from Mesopotamia.
• Cuneiform inscriptions: It mentions trade between Mesopotamia and Harappans and refers to “Meluha” as the Indus region.
• Intermediate trading stations included Dilmun (Bahrain) and Makan (Makran coast).
• Means of Transport:
  • Bullock carts and boats were used.
  • Discovery of a dockyard in Lothal suggests long-distance trade.
  • Carts had solid wheels, similar to modern horse carriages (ekka).
• Trade Methods:
  • Barter system was used.
  • No metallic money circulated.
• Trade Routes:
  • Harappans traded with the Khetri region of Rajasthan for copper and with South India for gold.
  • They engaged in barter exchange with civilizations like Sumer (southern Iraq) and Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq, Syria, Turkey).

Imports and exports of Harappa

Barter trade occurred with civilizations such as Sumer (located in southern Iraq, extending from around Baghdad to the Persian Gulf) and Mesopotamia (situated in present-day eastern Syria, southeastern Turkey, and most of Iraq, encompassing the land between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers).

• Exported Goods: Agricultural Products, Cotton Goods, Ivory Products, Terracotta Figurines from various Harappan Cities, Beads from Chanhudaro, Conch Shells from Lothal.

CRAFTSMANSHIP

Different Harappan sites were known for specializing in the production of specific craft materials.

Harappans were skilled in various crafts such as metal casting, boat-making, stone carving, pottery, and terracotta sculpture.

• Stone, bronze, and terracotta sculptures were discovered, including a red sandstone torso from Harappa and a soapstone bust from Mohenjodaro.
• Terracotta sculptures were less refined compared to stone and bronze, but they displayed realistic features, especially in Gujarat and Kalibangan.
  • Notably, a mother goddess terracotta figure was found in Harappa.

 Textiles and Ornaments

• People in the Indus Valley Civilization knew about cotton and silk.
• A figure believed to be a priest is shown wearing a shawl-like cloth with flower patterns.
• Spinning cotton and wool was common.
• Beads and ornaments were crafted from materials like carnelian, jasper, crystal, steatite, as well as metals such as copper, bronze, and gold. They also used shell, faience, terracotta, and burnt clay.
  • Note-The red color of carnelian beads came from firing yellowish raw material (Chalcedony) at various stages of production.
  • Mesopotamian excavation sites have revealed similar artifacts, indicating trade with the Indus Valley.
• In Farmana (Haryana), a cemetery was found with buried bodies adorned with ornaments.

Metal, Tools and Weapon

• The Harappan civilization existed during the Bronze Age and were skilled in crafting tools from copper bronze, made by blending tin with copper.
• Tools:
  • Harappans utilized various materials including chert blades made from Rohri Chert, copper items, bone, and ivory tools.
    • Rohri chert: a fine-grained sedimentary rock found in Pakistan, to create stone blades and tools.
  • Copper was used to make tools like points, chisels, needles, fish hooks, razors, weighing pans, mirrors, and antimony rods.
• Harappans armed themselves with weapons such as arrowheads, spearheads, celts, and axes.
• Bronze Casting was a widespread practice among the Harappans, employing the ‘lost wax’ or Cire Perdue technique.
  • Famous examples of Harappan bronze craftsmanship include the Dancing Girl statue from Mohenjo-daro and the Bronze figure of a bull from Kalibangan.
• The Harappans did not possess knowledge of ironworking.

IMPORTANT SITES AND FEATURES – at a glance

Geographical Area and the Settlements

Authorship and the Making of Indian Culture

• Some believe that the creators of the Harappan Civilization were the priest-kings who spoke Dravidian languages.
• Archaeological findings suggest that after the decline of the Harappan Civilization, its people moved towards the eastern and southern regions of India.
  • It’s possible that some Harappan individuals settled in various parts of India. However, we can only confirm this once we decipher the Harappan script.

Contemporary Cultures of the Indus Civilisation

• The Indus region was home to various groups like pastoralists, farmers, and hunter-gatherers.
• Villages and large towns existed in the Indus region, with a mixed population.
• Across India, from Kanyakumari to Kashmir and Gujarat to Arunachal Pradesh, diverse communities of hunter-gatherers, pastoralists, and farmers likely lived during this period.
• Understanding the history of these groups is crucial as their cultural and ecological knowledge contributed to Indian culture.
• While the Indus Civilization thrived in northwestern India, different cultures were emerging in other parts.
  • In southern India, particularly Kerala and Sri Lanka, hunting and gathering were prevalent.
  • Although the Harappans had watercraft knowledge, evidence of their connections with South India remains unclear.
  • Northern South India, like Karnataka and Andhra, had Neolithic cultures focused on pastoralism and agriculture.
  • Chalcolithic cultures were common in the Deccan and western India, while Neolithic cultures dominated northern India, including Kashmir, the Ganges valley, and central and eastern regions.
  • India during the time of the Harappans was a diverse cultural mosaic.

Reasons of Decline of Indus Valley Civilization

The Indus Valley Civilization started declining around 1900 BCE.

• Historians attribute the decline to changes in climate, reduced trade with Mesopotamia, and drying of the river and water sources due to prolonged drought.
• Invasions, floods, and changes in the course of the river are also seen as contributing factors to the downfall of the Indus civilization.
• Over time, population migration towards the south and east from the Indus region.

UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

1.  Which one of the following ancient towns is well-known for its elaborate system of water harvesting and management by building a series of dams and channelizing water into connected reservoirs? [UPSC CSE 2021]

1.  Dholavira
2.  Kalibangan
3.  Rakhigarhi
4.  Ropar

2.  Regarding the IVC consider the following statements : [UPSC CSE 2011]

1.  It was predominantly a secular civilization and the Religious element, though present did not dominate the scene
2.  During the period, cotton was used for manufacturing textiles.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1 only
b)  2 only
c)  Both 1 and 2
d)  Neither 1 nor 2

3.  Which one of the following characterises the people of the Indus Valley Civilization ?

1) They possessed great palaces and temples
2) They worshiped both male and female deities.
3) They employed horse drawn chariots in warfare

Select the correct code given below : [UPSC CSE 2013]

a) 1 and 2 only
b) 2 only
c) 1, 2 and 3
d) None

4.  Which one of the following is not a Harappan Site? [UPSC CSE 2019]

1.  Chanhudaro
2.  Kot Diji
3.  Sohgaura
4.  Desalpur

Answers:

a) 2
b) 1
c) 4
d) 3

Sohgaura village in Gorakhpur district of Uttar Pradesh has a copper plate inscription from the Mauryan period, providing information about storehouses. Chanhudaro, Kot Diji, and Desalpur are Harappan sites, with Chanhudaro and Kot Diji in Sindh province, Pakistan, and Desalpur in Kutchh region, Gujarat.