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BUDDHISM AND JAINISM

Origin of Buddhism and Jainism

Buddhism and Jainism emerged as significant heterodox movements during the post-Vedic era as a response to the Kshatriya opposition against the dominance of Brahmin rituals. They rose for several key reasons:

Increasing skepticism challenged traditional customs and orthodoxies.

• The Vedic tradition’s widespread slaughter of cattle during sacrifices hindered the advancement of the emerging agricultural economy, which relied on cattle for its progress.
• These religions were founded by Mahavira and Buddha.
• Notably, both Mahavira and Gautama Buddha received substantial support from the Vaisya community.
  • They advocated non-violence, thereby diminishing the potential for conflicts and promoting trade and commerce.
  • The Dharmasutras criticized the practice of lending money on interest, a notion rejected by Buddhism and Jainism.
  • Initially, they disregarded the existing varna system, focusing instead on enhancing the status of Vaisyas.

Gautama Buddha and Buddhism

Gautama Buddha or Siddhartha was a contemporary of Mahavira.

• Born in 563 B.C. into the Sakya kshatriya family in a park in Lumbini near Kapilavastu.
  • Ashoka erected a pillar at Lumbini to commemorate his visit to the birthplace of Gautama Buddha.
• His father Suddhodhana was the elected ruler of Kapilavastu, leading the Sakya republic and his mother Mahamaya was a princess from the Kosalan dynasty.
• Mahamaya experienced a dream in which a white elephant entered her womb.
  • He was brought up by his foster mother “Mahaprajapati Gautami” — first lady (Bhikkhuni) to be included in his Sangha.
  • He married Yashodhara and had a son named Rahula.
• One day, while riding in his chariot with his charioteer, Siddhartha Gautama encountered four sights: an old man, a sick man, a corpse, and a religious mendicant. These encounters deeply affected him, prompting his realization of the widespread suffering in the world.

 LIFE AFTER NIRVANA

• He delivered his first sermons at Sarnath in Banaras. This event is described as Dharmachakra-parivartana or ‘wheel of the great law’.
  • The Mauryan pillar capital discovered at Sarnath, commonly referred to as the Lion Capital, represents the symbolism of Dhammachakra Pravartan.
• He expounded on the Four Noble Truths and the Middle Path, and he established the Sangha to disseminate his teachings extensively.
• The prominent disciples of Buddha were Sariputta, Mahamoggallana, Mahakaccayana and Ananda.
• His missionary activities did not discriminate between the rich and the poor, the high and the low, and man and woman.
  • Asoka incorporated Buddhist principles into his state policies.
• For the rest of his life, he taught dhamma or the path of righteous living.
• Gautama Buddha passed away at the age of 80 in 483 B.C. at Kushinagar, in eastern Uttar Pradesh. This is known as Parinirvana or MAHAPARINIRVANA.
  • According to Buddhist tradition, his final message to his followers was: “Be lamps unto yourselves, as all of you must strive for your own liberation.”

Doctrines of Buddhism

Special Features of Buddhism

• Three main elements (Triratna) in Buddhism: Buddha, Sangha and Dhamma
• Basic Tenets:
  • It rejects the concepts of God and the soul (atman).
  • It condemned the Varna system
  • It stressed on karma and ahimsa (leading to increased cattle wealth)
  • It discourages wealth hoarding to prevent poverty which leads to cruelty and violence.
  • It aimed at Individual salvation or nirvana, but mainly for monks.
• Buddha refrained from naming a successor, asserting that his teachings would serve as the guide for his followers.
• Buddhism promoted rationalism, encouraging critical thinking and logic over superstition.
• Language: Pali, the language of the common people, contributed to the spread of Buddhism.
• Social Acceptance:
  • The followers, without considering caste, challenged the varna system.
  • Magadha, Kosala, Kausambi, and various republics turned to Buddhism due to Brahmin discrimination, drawn by its perceived liberalism and democracy in contrast to Brahmanism.
  • Emperor Asoka’s led to its global spread, particularly in South, Southeast, and East Asia.
• Sangha or Religious order:
  • Open to everybody, irrespective of caste and sex.
  • Monks should faithfully observe the rules and regulations of the sangha. Once enrolled as members they had to take the vow of continence, poverty and faith.
  • Debtors and slaves were not allowed to join the sangha without the consent of their masters or superiors.
  • Initially, only men joined the sangha, later admitting women, facilitated by Ananda.
    • Women were welcomed into the sangha, achieving equality with men.
    • Buddha’s foster mother, Mahapajapati Gotami, became the first ordained bhikkhuni. Many women in the sangha became dhamma teachers and theris, achieving liberation.
    • The first human statues likely worshipped in India were probably those of the Buddha.
  • In Buddhist texts, the term “Kutagarashala,” literally translating to a hut with a pointed roof or groves where traveling mendicants stopped, referred to a site for intellectual debate and discussion.
  • An Anecdote: It is said that on one occasion an ignorant person abused him. The Buddha listened silently, and when the person had stopped abusing, the Buddha asked: “My son, if a person does not accept a present what will happen to it?” His adversary replied. “It remains with the person who has offered it.” The Buddha then said “My son, I do not accept your abuse”.

Buddhist Art representation of the 5 stages:

• Gajalakshmi/ Maya(mother of Buddha): women surrounded by Lotuses and elephants (Used as a symbol in Sanchi Stupa)

Buddhist Councils

Buddhist Sects

Sthaviravadins, Mahasanghikas, and Sarvastivadins emerged as Buddhism’s major sects.

Sthaviravada or Theravada

• Theravada, or “Way of the Elders” in Pali, is regarded as an orthodox form of Buddhism, aiming primarily for the cessation of Kleshas (defilements) and the attainment of Nirvana.
• Theravada follows Vibhajjavada (the teaching of analysis), advocating that insight should arise from personal experience, critical inquiry, and reasoning rather than blind faith.
• This branch is widespread in Southeast Asian nations such as Myanmar, Cambodia, and Sri Lanka.
• Key Theravada text:
  • Visuddhimagga (The Path of Purification), authored by Buddhaghosa in the 5th century BC in Sri Lanka.
• A subdivision within the Sthaviravadins emerged in the 3rd century BC, when the Sarvastivadins (a school advocating realistic pluralism) separated from the Vibhajyavadins (analytical school).
• Other significant offshoots of the Sthaviravadins were the Sammatiyas and the Vatsiputriyas, both known for their theory of the Pudgala (person).

Mahasanghikas

• The Mahasanghikas originated as a result of the first division in the Buddhist community during the Second Buddhist Council.
  • They emerged when the Acariyavadins, adherents of traditional teachings, separated from the Sthaviravadins, followers of the Way of the Elders.
• The Mahasanghikas’ perspectives on the nature of the Buddha and the Arhat hinted at the development of Mahayana Buddhism.
• Over the subsequent seven centuries, the Mahasanghikas experienced further subdivisions, including the Lokottaravadins, the Ekavyavaharikas, and the Kaukkutikas.

HINAYANA: LESSER VEHICLE

• Prevalent in Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, and Southeast Asia, this form of Buddhism is characterized as conservative and orthodox.
• Adherents aim to become Arhants, individuals who attain self-nirvana and cease rebirth, though this has been criticized as self-centered.
• Emphasizes gradual nirvana, where individuals help others through example, advice, self-discipline, and meditation, achieving salvation individually.
• Rejects the deification of Buddha, viewing him as a regular human being, leading to symbol worship rather than idol worship.
• Emperor Ashoka famously patronized this form of Buddhism.
  • Hiuen Tsang, during his visit to Tamil country, documented several Buddhist stupas constructed by Asoka in Kanchipuram in his travel accounts.
• Pali Literature: Key texts include the “Malinda Panho” while historical accounts are found in chronicles such as the “Dipavamsa,” “Mahavamsa,” and “Culavamsa.”
• Further divisions exist, including VAIBHASHIKA AND SAUTRANTIKA.

MAHAYANA  (GREATER VEHICLE)

• Its main center is Nalanda University (under Pala Patronage), Popularly spread to China & Japan
• According to it, Buddha was a god; focus on the Law of Karuna or compassion over and above the law of karma.
• Idol worship started: Two schools Gandhara and Mathura schools emerged.
• Bodhisattvas were seen as compassionate beings who, instead of attaining nibbana, accumulated merit to help others in the world.
  • who complete this goal is called Samyaksambuddha
  • Instead of Arhants, men should become Bodhisattvas: Idea of transference of merit.

Mahayana has two schools of thought:

VAJRAYANA: DIAMOND VEHICLE

• Also referred to as Mantrayana, this form of Buddhism emerged after the 5th century AD and is an offshoot of Mahayana Buddhism.
• Main center is Vikramasila University in Bihar. It is primarily practiced in regions Bengal, Bihar, Nepal and eventually Tibet in the 11th century CE.
• Monks in this tradition distanced themselves from mainstream society and transitioned from using Pali (the People’s Language) to Sanskrit (an intellectual language).
• This branch emphasizes Tantrism, incorporating rituals, chanting, and tantric techniques.
• Interestingly, Tantrism also became integrated into Jainism.
• It incorporates a strong female element, and sculptures like the 10th-century Bihar statue of the Buddhist goddess Marichi exemplify this.
• Worship of deities like Tara is intended to cultivate inner qualities for a better understanding of the external world.

Other schools of Buddhist Philosphy

• Vaibhashikas: Believe that relative truth is divisible into parts, while ultimate truth is indivisible.
• Sautrantikas: Acknowledge the selflessness of individuals but not of phenomena.
• Cittamatrins: Recognize the selflessness of both self and phenomena, yet uphold the true existence of mind.
• Madhyamikas: Assert that although things may seem real and substantial, they lack inherent true existence.

Buddhist Literature

The Buddhist texts were compiled in Pali, the language of the common people which played a significant role in facilitating the spread of Buddhism.

The Pali canons are called as the Tripitakas (Three Baskets):

1. Vinaya Pitaka: Focuses on monastic rules and moral codes.
2. Sutta Pitaka: Contains Buddha’s teachings and discourses,
   1. It is divided into five Nikayas, housing works like Theragatha, Therigatha, and Jataka tales (depicting Buddha’s past deeds as Bodhisattva).
3. Abhidhamma Pitaka: Expounds Buddhist philosophy.

Other Literature:

• Therigatha: Life stories of Nuns. “Theri” means “Respected Woman”
• Theragatha: Life stories of Monks
• Manimekalai (one of the twin epics of the post-Sangam age) – Author: Sattanar
• Buddhcharita, Saudaranand, Sariputra Prakaran – Author: Ashwaghosh
• Kundalakesi – Author: Nagakuthanaar
• Abhidhmma Kosh – Author: Vasubandhu
• Madhyami Kakarika – Author: Nagarjuna
• Vishuddhimagga was written by Buddhaghosh
• Pramāṇasamuccaya – Author: Dignāga
  • Dinnaga and Dhammapala, eminent Buddhist scholars from Kanchipuram, led Nalanda University.
• Milinda Panha (conversations between King Menander and monk Nagasena),
• Ceylonese chronicles [Dipavamsa (Island Chronicles), Mahavamsa (Great Chronicle) and Culavamsa (Lesser Chronicle)] containing regional histories of Buddhism.
• Netti Pakarana: A Buddhist scripture, occasionally part of the Khuddaka Nikaya in Theravada Buddhism’s Pali Canon.
• Avadana literature: A compilation in Sanskrit consisting of one hundred Buddhist legends.
• Lalitavistara: A biography of Gautama Buddha, composed in a blend of Sanskrit and vernacular.
• Samannaphala Sutta: The second sutta in the Digha Nikaya, featuring a dialogue between Buddha and Ajatasatru.

Mudras of Buddha

• Dhyana Mudra: Symbolizes meditation, concentration, and inner peace.
• Anjali Mudra: Represents respect, greeting, and gratitude.
• Vitarka Mudra: Also known as the “teaching mudra” or “gesture of discussion,” it signifies the transmission of knowledge and communication of Buddha’s teachings.
• Varada Mudra: Represents generosity, compassion, and the granting of wishes.
• Abhaya Mudra: Symbolizes fearlessness, protection, and the dispelling of negativity.
• Bhumisparsha Mudra: Depicts the moment of Buddha’s enlightenment, symbolizing the earth witnessing his attainment.
• Uttarabodhi Mudra: Represents the union of wisdom and compassion, balance of energies, and enlightenment through self-integration.
• Dharma Chakra Mudra: Signifies the initiation of the wheel of Dharma, the teaching of Dharma.
• Karana Mudra: Represents protection and dispelling of negativity, with the index finger symbolizing wisdom and the ability to overcome obstacles.
• Jnana Mudra: Signifies the unity of individual and universal consciousness and connection to Buddha’s teachings.
• Tarjani Mudra: Represents a warning or protection against evil forces.

Causes of the Decline of Buddhism

• Buddhism waned during the Bhakti movement, adopting Hindu elements, eventually merging into Hinduism, with Buddha regarded as an avatar of Vishnu in certain traditions.
• From the 1st century, idol worship and patronage flourished.
• Reforms in Brahmanism
• Language Barriers: Buddhism adopting Sanskrit over Pali.
• Corrupt Monasteries: By 7th century A.D., Buddhist monasteries deviated from Buddha’s teachings.
• Splinter groups: Division into various splinter groups like ‘Hinayana’, ‘Mahayana’, ‘Vajrayana’, ‘Tantrayana’ led Buddhism to lose its originality
• Lose of royal patronage: Buddhism also lost its royal patronage after Harshavardhana.
• Women in Monasteries: Buddhists see women as objects of desire.
• Foreign invasion: Hun and Turkish invasions severely harmed Buddhism, targeting monasteries and monks. Some sought refuge in Nepal and Tibet, but Buddhism declined by 12th Century AD.

Vardhamana Mahavira and Jainism

Introduction

Jainism, or Jaina, originates from the term “Jina,” signifying conqueror. Jain monks were referred to as Nirgranthas, meaning free from bonds. Risabhnath was the inaugural Tirthankara and the sect’s founder, while Mahavira, the last Tirthankara, holds significant influence in Jainism.

Vardhamana Mahavira

• Vardhamana Mahavira (referred to as Nigantha Nataputta by Buddhist texts), born in 540 B.C., hailed from a renowned kshatriya clan in Kundagrama near Vaishali, North Bihar.
• His father Siddhartha was the chief of the Jnatrika clan, and his mother Trishala was a Lichchavi princess and sister of its chief Chetaka. They were connected with the royal family of Magadha, Anga and Videha.
• Initially, Mahavira lived as a householder but left worldly life at 30 to become an ascetic.
• For 12 years, he wandered continuously, avoiding prolonged stays in villages or towns.
• Mahavira is said to have worn the same clothes throughout his 12-year journey, abandoning them entirely at the age of 42 upon attaining perfect knowledge or kaivalya.
• His mastery over misery and happiness earned him the titles Mahavira (the great hero) and Jina (the conqueror), with his followers known as Jainas, and hence his sect came to be known as
  • According to Jain tradition, Mahavira was not the founder of Jainism, but the last of the 24 Tirthankaras. Risabha (1st Tirthankara) was the founder of the sect.
  • Yajur Veda mentions three of the Tirthankaras, viz., Risabha, Ajitanatha and Aristanemi.
• Mahavira propagated Jainism for 30 years, traveling to regions like Kosala, Magadha, Mithila, and Champa.
• He died at 72 in 468 B.C. at Pavapuri, near modern Rajgir.

Doctrines of Jainism

• Jainism is an unorthodox religion.
• Jains uphold three principles known as Triratnas or Three Gems:

1. Right faith (Samyag-Darshana): This entails believing in the teachings and wisdom of Mahavira.
2. Right knowledge (Samyag-Jnana): This involves accepting the doctrine that there is no God, and the world has existed without a creator, and all objects possess a soul.
3. Right conduct (Samyag-Mahavrata): This refers to adhering to the observance of the five great vows.

• The monks have to undertake the five great vows (pancha-mahavrata of monks):
• do not commit violence (ahimsa) (Non-violence is the central tenet of Jainism)
• do not speak a lie (satya),
• do not steal (asteya),
• do not acquire property (aparigraha),
• observe continence (brahmacharya).
• Mahavira introduced the fifth doctrine in Jainism; the other four were inherited from previous teachers.

Basic Tenets of Jainism

• Householders were expected to observe the milder form of the practice of these virtues called anuvrata (small vows) in comparison to the monks
• Jainism also critiques human emotions.
• Mahavira dismissed Vedic authority.
• Jainism refutes the existence of God.
• Jainism is an egalitarian religion that rejects inequality based on birth.
• Women are allowed into the monastic order, but they cannot achieve salvation directly. Instead, they can accumulate merit through good deeds and be reborn as men to pursue salvation.
• Sallekhana or santhara: a ritual fast to death which Jains regard as the “culmination of our life as ascetics”.

Jain images and symbols

• Initially, not image worshippers but later worshiped Mahavira and others.
• Only standing or sitting; No emotions, only meditating
• Each tirthankara has own symbol
  • 1st Rishabhadeva (Adinatha) — Bull
  • 22nd Neminatha — Conch
  • 23rd – Parsvanatha — Snake
  • 24th Mahavira — Lion

Sects of Jainism

• Approximately 500 years after Mahavira’s passing, around 79 or 82 CE, Jainism experienced a schism.
  • Mahavira advocated complete nudity for his followers; his predecessor Parsva had advised covering the upper and lower body.
  • Due to a severe famine in Magadha, some Jaina monks led by Bhadrabahu migrated south to uphold their rigorous discipline. And who remained in the north led by Sthulabahu revised the code of conduct, permitting the wearing of white clothes.
• This difference led to the division of Jainism into two sects: Svetambaras (wearing white dress) and Digambaras (naked).

The schism weakened Jainism’s influence in Magadha, yet it garnered fervent followers in regions such as Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, and Karnataka.

Philosophies of Jainism

• While Jainism acknowledges the existence of the soul, it denies the concept of an ultimate, universal soul.
  • According to Jainism, souls are not limited to animal and plant life but also inhabit rocks, running water, and various other natural objects typically not considered living by other religious traditions.
• Jainism promotes dualism, positing the eternal existence of soul (jiva) and matter (ajiva).
  • It rejects the notion of an ultimate, universal soul.
  • The interaction of jiva and ajiva results in karma (action), leading to an unending cycle of birth and rebirth.
  • To attain liberation from karma, rigorous austerities and self-mortification are practiced.
• Syadavada Philosophy (Syad: relative to some standpoint, vada: doctrine, theory, view):
  • Knowledge is inherently partial and perpetually relative to a specific standpoint and pertains to particular aspects of objects.
• Anekantavada Philosophy (theory of plurality)
  • Ultimate truth and reality are intricate, possessing multiple aspects and perspectives.
• Syadavada (maybe) / Anekantavada [Ultimate truth and reality is complex and has multiple-aspects, many perspectives, non-absolutism means no single, specific statement can describe the nature of existence and the absolute truth)] / Sapta-bhanganay (7 parts logic)
• Jainism advocates the theory of ‘The Doctrine of Relativity of Knowledge and Judgments.’
  • Knowledge in Jainism is categorized into two classes:
    • Mediate (Paroksa), which can be perceived through sensory organs. This is further subdivided into Mati and Shruta.
      • Mati (Sensuous Cognition) Perception through the senses.
      • Shruta Knowledge acquired from authoritative sources.
    • Immediate (Aparoksa), which can be attained without sensory organs. This is further subdivided into Avadhi, Manahparyaya, and
      • Avadhi (Clairvoyance) Knowledge is confined or limited.
      • Manahparyaya (Telepathy) Direct perception of the thoughts of others.
      • Kevala (Omniscience) Complete or absolute knowledge.

Jain Councils

Literature of Jainism

• The earliest significant Jain works were written in Apabhramsa.
• Jains shifted from Sanskrit to Prakrit for preaching their doctrines and adopted Ardha-Magadhi for composing religious texts.
• The adoption of Prakrit influenced regional languages like Sauraseni, leading to the emergence of
• Jain literature, known as ‘Aagam’ (Principle), consists of 12 Angas, 12 Upangas, 10 Prakirnas, 6 Ched Sutras, 4 Mool Sutras, and 2 Chulika Sutras.
  • Each Anga is accompanied by Upanga, providing descriptions of the universe, beings’ classification, astronomy, posthumous life, etc.
  • The 10 Prakirnas are supplements to major texts.
  • Ched Sutra contains rules for Jain monks, including Jitakalpa, Brihatkalpa, Nishith, Mahnishith, Vyavhar (Behavior), and Aachar Dasha.
  • Mool Sutra comprises Jain sermons, forest life, monk duties, rules of Yam, etc., including Dashvaikalik, Utaradhyayan, Shadavshayak, and Pindniryukti or Pakshik Sutra.
  • The two Chulika Sutras (Nandi-sutra and Anuyagadvara-Sutra) serve as independent encyclopedic texts, featuring moral stories for monks.
• In Tamil literature, Naladiyar, Palamoli, Jivaka Chinthamani, Yapperunkalam Karikai, and Neelakesi are notable Jain works.

Other Notable Jain Texts

• Kalpa Sutra, composed by Bhadrabahu
• Lilavatisara, authored by Acharya Jinaratna
• Tattvartha Sutra, written in Sanskrit by Umaswami
• Samayasara, authored by Acharya Kundakunda
• Hemachandra’s Ratnakaranda is a notable Jain text.
• Sravakacara, attributed to Samantabhadra Swamy
• Shatkhandagama, composed by Pushpadanta and Bhutabali
• Sarvarthasiddhi, authored by Pujyapada
• Trishasthilkshana, attributed to Mallisen
• Mahapurana, authored by Jinasena
• Syadvadmanjari, written by Mallisen
• Dravya Sangrah, composed by Nemichandra

Spread of Jainism

• Initially, Jainism attracted followers from various social backgrounds.
• Over time, Jainism became primarily associated with the trading and money-lending community.
• Jainism’s similarity to Brahmanical religion hindered its mass appeal, yet it gradually spread to South and West India.
• Chandragupta Maurya (322-298 B.C.) played a role in Jainism’s spread in Karnataka by embracing it, abdicating his throne, and living as a Jaina ascetic.
• Epigraphic evidence of Jainism in Karnataka dates back to the third century A.D., and from the sixth century, basadis (Jaina monastic establishments) proliferated, receiving royal land grants for support.
• Jainism’s strict adherence to non-violence limited engagement in other occupations, including agriculture, due to the prohibition against intentional or unintentional killing.
• Jainism reached Kalinga in the 4th century B.C. and found support from King Kharavela, who defeated Andhra and Magadha princes.
• By the 2nd and 1st centuries B.C., Jainism extended to southern Tamil Nadu.
• Over time, Jainism spread to Malwa, Gujarat, and Rajasthan, and even now these areas have a good number of Jain population engaged in trade.
• While Jainism lacked state patronage compared to Buddhism, it persevered in its established regions, whereas Buddhism largely faded in the Indian subcontinent.

Decline of Jainism in India

• Absence of royal patronage.
• Internal division between Digambaras and Swetambaras.
• Limited missionary efforts.
• Factionalism within the Jain community.
• The rigorous and austere practices associated with Jainism.
• The rise and spread of Buddhism as a competing faith.

Why did Jainism survive in India while Buddhism didn’t?

Jain Temples

• Ranakpur temple in Rajasthan, constructed by Darna Shah in 1437 AD, is a Svetambara Jain temple dedicated to Tirthankara Rishabhdev.
• Mount Mangi Tungi in Maharashtra houses images of Tirthankaras in various postures, including Padmasana and Kayotsarga.
• Shikharji in Jharkhand, situated on Parasnath Hill, holds significance as a Jain Tirtha for both Digambara and Svetambara traditions, being the place where twenty of the twenty-four Jain Tirthankaras attained Moksha.
• The Khajuraho Group of Monuments in Madhya Pradesh includes Jain temples located in the southeast region of the Khajuraho complex.
• The Dilwara Jain temple on Mount Abu, made of marble, was commissioned by the Samanta Vimalshah of Chalukya (Solanki) ruler Bhimdev I of Gujarat.
• The Sittanavasal Cave Paintings in Tamil Nadu depict the theme of Jain Samasvasarana.
• Jain influence is evident in sites such as the Ellora Caves in Maharashtra, Udaygiri Caves in Odisha.

Important Terms related to Jainism

• Siddha: One who is fully liberated.
• Pudgala: Aggregates of atoms possessing form, color, taste, and smell, and can be touched and felt.
• Chaitanya: Consciousness.
• Mohaniya: Delusion.
• Gunasthanas: Stages of purification.
• Arhat: One who has entered the stage of Kevalajnana.
• Tirthankara: An Arhat who has attained the capability of teaching the doctrine.
• Basadis: Jaina monastic establishments.
• Avadhijnana: Superhuman cognition.
• Ganadharas: Chief disciples of Mahavira.

UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

1.  With reference to the religious history of India, consider the following statements:

1) Sautrantika and Sammitiya were the sects of Jainism.
2) Sarvastivadin held that the constituents of phenomena were not wholly momentary, but existed forever in a latent form.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct ? [UPSC CSE 2017]

a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) None

2.  With reference to the religious history of India, consider the following statements: [UPSC CSE 2020]

1) Sthaviravadins belong to Mahayana Buddhism.
2) Lokottaravadin sect was an offshoot of Mahasanghika sect of Buddhism.
3) The deification of Buddha by Mahasanghikas fostered Mahayana Buddhism.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1 and 2 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3

3.  With the reference to the religious history of India, considering the following statements. [UPSC CSE 2016]

1) The concept of Bhodhisattva is central to Hinayana sect of Buddhism.
2) Bhodhisattva is a compassionate one on his way to enlightenment.
3) Bodhisattva delays achieving his own salvation to help all sentiment beings on their path to it.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) Only 1
b) Only 2
c) 2 and 3
d) 1, 2 and 3

4.  Consider the following : [UPSC CSE 2019]

1.  Deification of the Buddha
2.  Treading the path of Bodhisattvas
3.  Image worship and rituals

Which of the above is/ are the feature/ features of Mahayana Buddhism?

a) 1 only
b) 1 and 2 only
c) 2 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3

5.  The painting of Bodhisattva Padmapani is one of the most famous and oft-illustrated paintings at : [UPSC CSE 2017]

a) Ajanta
b) Badami
c) Bagh
d) Ellora

6) With reference to the cultural history of India, which one of the following is the correct description of the term ‘paramitas’? [UPSC CSE 2020]

1.  The earliest Dharmashastra texts written in aphoristic (sutra) style.
2.  Philosophical schools that did not accept the authority of Vedas
3.  Perfections whose attainment led to the Bodhisattva path.
4.  Powerful merchant guilds of early medieval South India.

7) With reference to Indian history, who among the following is a future Buddha, yet to come to save the world? [UPSC CSE 2018]

1.  Avalokitesvara
2.  Lokesvara
3.  Maitreya
4.  Padmapani

8.  With reference to Indian history, consider the following texts: [UPSC CSE 2022]

1.  Nettipakarana
2.  Parishishtaparvan
3.  Avadanashataka
4.  Trishashtilakshana Mahapurana

Which of the above are Jaina texts ?

a) 1,2 and 3
b) 2 and 4 only
c) 1,3 and 4
d) 2, 3 and 4

9.  With reference to the religious practices in India, the “Sthanakvasi” sect belongs to : [UPSC CSE 2018]

1.  Buddhism
2.  Jainism
3.  Vaishnavism
4.  Shaivism

10.  In which one of the following regions was Dhanyakataka, which flourished as A prominent Buddhist centre under the Mahasanghikas, located? [UPSC CSE 2023]

a) Andhra
b) Gandhara
c) Kalinga
d) Magadha

11.  With reference to ancient India, consider the following statements: [UPSC CSE 2023]

1) The concept of Stupa is Buddhist in origin.
2) Stupa was generally a repository of relics.
3) Stupa was a votive and commemorative structure in Buddhist tradition.

How many of the above pairs are correctly matched ?

a) Only one
b) Only two
c) All three
d)  None

12) Souls are not only the property of animal and plant life, but also of rocks, running water and many other natural objects not looked on as living by other religious sects.”

The above statement reflects one of the core beliefs of which one of the following religious sects of ancient India?  [UPSC CSE 2023]

1.  Buddhism
2.  Jainism
3.  Shaivism
4.  Vaishnavism

13.  With reference to Indian history, consider the following pairs: [UPSC CSE 2022]

Historical person – Known as

1) Aryadeva – Jaina scholar
2) Dignaga – Buddhist scholar
3) Nathamuni – Vaishnava scholar

How many of the above pairs are correctly matched ?

1.  None of the pairs
2.  Only One Pair
3.  Only two Pairs
4.  All three pairs

14.  The Jain philosophy holds that the world is created and maintained by [UPSC CSE 2011]

1.  Universal Law
2.  Universal Truth
3.  Universal Faith
4.  Universal Soul

15.  Which of the following statements is/are applicable to Jaina Doctrine?

1.  The surest way of annihilating karma is to practice penance.
2.  Every object, even the smallest particle has a soul.
3.  Karma is the bane of the soul and must be ended.

Select the correct answer using the codes given below :

a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 2 only
d) 1, 2 and 3