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THE MARATHAS

Several factors contributed to the ascendance of the Marathas during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The geographical landscape of the Maratha region played a significant role in shaping distinct attributes among its people. With its rugged mountains and dense forests, the environment cultivated bravery and proficiency in guerrilla warfare among the Marathas, who constructed formidable forts atop these mountains. Additionally, the propagation of the Bhakti movement in Maharashtra fostered a sense of religious cohesion among them.

Marathas occupied influential positions within the administrative and military frameworks of the

Deccan Sultanates of Bijapur and Ahmadnagar. However, the establishment of a formidable Maratha state is chiefly credited to Shahji Bhonsle and his son Shivaji. It was Shivaji Maharaj who brought about political cohesion among the Marathas.

Shivaji (1627–1680 AD):

• Shivaji’s Leadership:The Maratha ascendancy commenced in the early 17th century under Shivaji’s leadership. He expanded Maratha territories by carving them out of Bijapur, Ahmednagar, and Golkonda.
• Early Life of Shivaji:
  • Born in Shivnerinear Junnar to Shahji Bhonsle and Jijabai.
  • Inherited the Poona jagir in 1637 under the guardianship of Dadaji Kondadev.
  • Assumed full control of his jagir in 1647 after Dadaji Kondadev’s demise.
• Military Exploits of Shivaji:
  • Initiated military campaigns at a young age, capturing forts like Raigarh, Kondana, and Torana between 1645-47.
  • Seized the strategically important Purandhar fort in 1646, establishing a formidable defense for the Marathas.
• Maratha-Mughal Relations:
  • First Phase (1615-1664):Mughals recognized Maratha chieftains’ significance but failed to align with them after Shahji’s defection.
  • Second Phase (1664-1667): Aurangzeb appointed Jai Singh as the viceroy of Deccan, resulting in the Treaty of Purandhar (1665).
  • Third Phase (1667-1680):Shivaji, angered by Mughal actions, launched attacks to reclaim lost forts, culminating in his coronation as Chhatrapati in 1674.
• Key Battles and Achievements:
  • Battle of Pratapgarh (1659):Shivaji defeated Afzal Khan, the Bijapur general.
  • Battle of Sinhagadh (Kondhana, 1670):Shivaji’s forces triumphed, though Tanhaji, his aide, perished.
  • Battle of Salher (1672):Marathas, employing guerrilla tactics, emerged victorious against the Mughals on an open battlefield.
• Coronation of Shivaji:He crowned himself king in 1674 at Raigarh, assuming the title of Chhatrapati.
• Legacy of Shivaji:Shivaji’s demise in 1680 marked the establishment of a robust empire that dominated Deccan and North India for over a century.

Maratha’s Administration:

Ministerial Responsibilities:

• All ministers, except Nyayadhish and Pandit Rao, led military expeditions and commanded armies.
• Royal decrees required approval and seals from the King and the Peshwa, along with endorsements from four other key ministers.
• There were eighteen administrative departments, each overseen by different ministers.
• Control Over Landed Families:
• Shivaji expanded crown land to control influential Maratha landed families, known as Deshmukhs.
• Adnyapatra, written in Modi scriptby Ramchandra Pant Amatya, outlined the principles of Maratha policy and state administration.

Provincial Government:

• The kingdom (Swaraj) was divided into Mauzas, Tarafs, and Prants.
• Prants were governed by a subedar, known as a karkun or mukhya desbadhikari.
• Tarfs were led by a havaldar, known as a karkunoa paripatyagar.
• Mauza was the smallest administrative unit.

Revenue Administration:

• The revenue system was based on Malik Amber’s Kathi system, where land was measured by Rod or Kathi.
• Shivaji’s revenue system was farmer-friendly, with a fixed state demand initially set at 30%, later increased to 40%of the gross produce.
• During famines, the government provided repayable aid and advanced loans to peasants.

Chauth and Sardeshmukhi:

• Shivaji collected Chauth (one-fourth of revenue) and Sardeshmukhi (additional 10%) from conquered territories and neighboring lands.

Military Organization:

• The Marathas excelled in guerrilla warfareand utilized innovative weapons like the Bagh naka (tiger claw).
• Infantry consisted of highly mobile Mavli(foot soldiers) and part-time peasant soldiers.
• The cavalry included Bargirs (state-provided horses) and Shiledars (mercenary horsemen).

Judicial System:

• Justice was administered through informal Panchayats in villages, guided by ordeals and smritis.
• Nyayadhish heard appeals in both civil and criminal cases, while Hazir Majlim served as the final court of appeal.

Asthpradhan

SAMBAJI’S REIGN(1680-1689)

• Sambhaji, the son of Shivaji Maharaj, held the position of a Mansabdar in the Mughal Empire as per the Treaty of Purandar.
• His reign was characterized by continuous conflicts with the Mughal Empire, as well as with neighboring powers such as the Siddis, Mysore, and the Portuguese in Goa.
• In 1687, Sambhaji achieved a significant victory over the Mughal forces at the Battle of Wai.
• However, in 1689, Sambhaji was captured, subjected to torture, and eventually executed by the Mughals.
• Following his demise, his brother Rajaram I succeeded him as the ruler.

SHAHU (1707-1749): PESHWA ASCENDANCY AND MARATHA EMPIRE’S SHIFTING DYNAMICS (1707-1749)

• Shahu’s reign marked the ascendancy of the Peshwas, reducing the Bhosales to mere figureheads.
• By the time of Rajaram II/Ram raja, the authority of the Chhatrapati was largely overshadowed by that of the Peshwa.

RULE OF THE PESHWAS (1713-1818 AD)

Balaji Vishwanath (1713-1720)

• Balaji Vishwanath Bhat (1662–1720) was the inaugural hereditary Peshwa from the Bhat family, who rose to prominence in the 18th century, marking the beginning of a lineage.
• Initially serving as a minor revenue official, he ascended to the esteemed position of Peshwa in 1713.
• Balaji Vishwanath solidified the authority and hereditary nature of the Peshwa position, becoming a pivotal figure in the Maratha Empire’s power structure.
• He played a crucial role in the Maratha civil war, ultimately establishing Shahu as the ruler and garnering support from various Maratha leaders.
• His diplomatic endeavors secured recognition from the Mughal emperor, Farukh Siyar, in 1719, granting Shahu the status of Maratha king and rights to collect taxes from Mughal Deccan provinces.

Baji Rao I (1720-1740)

• Baji Rao I, the eldest son of Balaji Vishwanath, assumed the mantle of Peshwa at the age of twenty following his father’s tenure.
• He ushered in an era of Maratha supremacy, establishing a confederacy system among Maratha chiefs, granting them autonomous territories.
• Baji Rao I’s governance facilitated the rise of influential Maratha families like the Gaekwads, Bhonsles, Holkars, Scindias, and Peshwas, spreading their authority across India.

Balaji Baji Rao (1740-1761)

• Balaji Baji Rao, also known asNanasaheb Peshwa, succeeded Baji Rao I and was known for his prowess in war, diplomacy, and administration.
• He implemented significant reforms in Pune’s civil administration, focusing on agricultural reorganization and law enforcement.
• Nanasaheb’s policies faced challenges, notably the destruction of the Maratha navy and the alliance with the British East India Company, leading to repercussions like the Battle of Panipat in 1761.
• Despite victories against the Nizam of Hyderabad and other adversaries, the Battle of Panipat marked a turning point, causing significant losses and the eventual decline of Maratha power.

Peshwa Madhav Rao I (1761-1772) and his Successors

• Madhav Rao I, succeeding Nanasaheb, endeavored to regain Maratha influence lost after the Battle of Panipat.
• He engaged in conflicts against the Nizam of Hyderabad and Haider Ali of Mysore, reclaiming lost territories and asserting Maratha dominance in northern India.
• Madhav Rao I’s efforts included diplomatic maneuvers such as returning the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II to Delhi, consolidating Maratha influence.
• His death in 1772 marked the end of a remarkable era, leading to succession challenges and eventual decline, culminating in the reign of the last Peshwa, Baji Rao II.

Maratha Administration Under Peshwas (1714-1818 AD)

Peshwa’s Rise to Prominence

• Initially part of Shivaji’s Ashta Pradhan (council of ministers), not hereditary initially.
• Balaji Vishwanath (1713-1720) made the Peshwa position supreme and hereditary, taking over administration post-Shambhaji.

The Central Secretariat

• Located in Poona, managed revenues, expenditures, and accounts from villages and districts.
• Maintained daily records of all financial transactions including foreign territories.
• Handled salaries for public servants under civil, military, and religious budgets.

Provinces

• Governed by Sar-Subahdars; divided into Subahs and Pranths.
• Mamlatdar and Kamavistaracted as Peshwa’s district representatives, overseeing administration.
• Deshmukh and Deshpandesensured checks and balances, handling accounts and legal/police authority respectively.
• Heavy sums (Rasad)collected from officials upon district appointment to prevent misappropriation.

Revenue Sources

• Primary income from land revenue, transitioning from agricultural produce sharing to tax farming.
• Land assessed based on crop type, irrigation facilities, and productivity.

Village Administration

• Villages led by Patel, a hereditary and unpaid chief officer, assisted by Kulkarni (accountant).
• Village self-sufficient, with hereditary servants and artisans providing labor (begar).

Urban Administration

• Kotwal served as chief officer and magistrate in towns and cities, maintaining order and regulating markets.
• Monthly accounts sent to government, with civil dispute resolution.

Police System

• Village watchmen typically from the Mahar caste.
• Additional house tax in disturbed areas to fund irregular infantry forces for crime control.

Judicial System

• Based on arbitration, lacking codified laws. Unresolved cases moved to panchayats.
• Appeals made to Mamlatdar, with a hierarchy for criminal cases ending with Raja Chhatrapati.

Military Structure

• Army resembled Mughal system, recruiting across India, including Arabs and Sikhs, differing from Shivaji’s local Maratha recruitment.
• Cavalry was the force’s backbone, with Jamindars required to supply horsemen annually.
• Infantry included Arabs, Rohillas, Sikhs, and Sindhis, paid more than Maratha Artillery manned by Portuguese, Indian Christians, and later, English.
• Navy protected ports, fought piracy, and collected customs, with naval bases established by Balaji Vishwanath at Konkan, Khanderi, and Vijayadurg.

Downfall of the Maratha Empire:

• Third Anglo-Maratha War:Culminated in the complete defeat and surrender of Maratha powers to the British, marking the end of the Maratha Empire.
• Peshwa’s Captivity:The last Peshwa was captured and detained in a small estate at Bithur, near Kanpur, effectively ending his political influence.
• Maharaja of Satara:Initially restored as the ruler of his territory under British suzerainty, only to have most of his lands annexed into the Bombay Presidency.
• Initial Annexation: The gradual annexation of Maratha territories into British India, stripping the Maratha leaders of their power and integrating their domains into British administrative units.
• Doctrine of Lapse (1848):Further annexation of Maratha territories, including the princely state of Satara, under Lord Dalhousie’s policy, which targeted states without a direct male heir.

UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

1.  The third battle of Panipat was fought in 1761. Why were so many empire-shaking battles fought at Panipat?  (2014)