India’s Nuclear Energy Expansion: Challenges, Innovations, and Solutions

Syllabus:

GS-1:

Mineral & Energy Resources

GS-3:

Nuclear Technology

Focus:

India has set an ambitious goal of achieving 100 GWe nuclear capacity by 2047 as part of its Viksit Bharat vision. Given limited uranium availability, the country is exploring thorium-based reactors and fuel recycling to sustain nuclear growth and enhance energy security.

India’s Nuclear Energy Expansion: Challenges, Innovations, and Solutions

The Need for Nuclear Expansion:

Vision for Viksit Bharat

  • The Indian government has finally recognized the crucial role of nuclear energy in achieving the vision of Viksit Bharat (Developed India) by 2047.
  • The goal of 100 GWe nuclear capacity is ambitious and requires significant advancements in technology, fuel supply, and policy reforms.

Challenges in Achieving 100 GWe Capacity

  • Running a 100 GWe nuclear capacity will require about 18,000 tons of uranium annually, which is nearly one-third of global uranium production.
  • India’s current uranium availability is insufficient, necessitating innovative approaches to fuel sourcing and recycling.

Understanding Nuclear Energy:

Global Significance of Nuclear Energy:

  • Nuclear energy is the second-largest source of low-carbon electricity after hydropower.
  • In 2019, it contributed 30% of global low-carbon electricity production.
  • In 2021, nuclear power accounted for 9.8% of total electricity, slightly declining from previous years.
  • The share of nuclear energy grew significantly from 1980 to 1990 but declined after 2000.

Benefits of Nuclear Energy:

  • Low Carbon Footprint: Emissions range from 5 to 6 grams per kWh, 100 times lower than coal.
  • Reliable & Perennial: Unlike wind and solar, nuclear power is weather-independent and ensures a stable supply.
  • Emission Reduction: Avoids over 1 billion tonnes of CO₂ annually, with a cumulative avoidance of 70 billion tonnes over five decades.
  • Environmental Advantages: No emission of fine particles, SO₂, NO₂, nitrates, or phosphates into the atmosphere.

About India’s Nuclear Regulatory Framework:

  • Atomic Energy Act, 1962 (AEA):
  • Grants exclusive control to the central government over nuclear energy.
  • Limits private sector involvement, particularly in R&D.
  • Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB):
  • Oversees safety compliance in the nuclear industry.
  • Lacks full autonomy, raising concerns over regulatory independence.
  • Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act (CLNDA), 2010:
  • Caps operator liability at ₹1,500 crore, with government support.
  • Faces legal challenges over absolute liability principles.
  • International Commitments:
  • India follows IAEA safeguards (Indo-US Civil Nuclear Agreement).
  • Not a signatory to the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), ensuring strategic autonomy.
  • Private Sector Participation and Public-Private Partnerships (PPP):
  • Limited Role So Far:
  • Private firms mostly engaged in engineering, procurement, and construction (EPC).
  • New Investment Plans:
  • Government aims to attract $26 billion in private investment, especially in Small Modular Reactors (SMRs).
  • Challenges in R&D:
  • AEA restrictions limit private sector R&D involvement, slowing innovation.
  • Potential PPP Model:
  • A government-majority (51%) stake model (e.g., NPCIL) with private investment could boost nuclear development.

Liability and Safety Concerns:

  • High Liability Risks:
  • Nuclear accidents pose severe risks, discouraging private investment.
  • Historical Disasters:
  • Chernobyl (1986) and Fukushima (2011) highlight potential dangers.
  • CLNDA & Compensation Issues:
  • Critics argue liability caps under CLNDA may be inadequate for disaster compensation.
  • Ensuring Public Trust:
  • Regular safety inspections, transparency (RTI Act), and accountability are essential.

Economic and Environmental Impact:

  • High Capital Requirements:
  •  Nuclear expansion requires skilled workforce, advanced technology, and heavy investment.
  • Planned Growth:
  • As per the World Nuclear Association (2024), India aims to expand nuclear power by 32 GWe.
  • Decarbonization & Sustainability:
  • Nuclear energy is crucial for India’s net-zero target by 2070.

Key Global Efforts to Expand Nuclear Energy:

  • IAEA’s ‘Atoms4Climate’ Initiative:
  • Engages with the climate community at COP summits.
  • Nuclear at COP Summits:
  • COP27 (Sharm el-Sheikh, 2022): First-ever IAEA nuclear pavilion.
  • COP28 (Dubai, 2023): 20 countries pledged to triple global nuclear capacity by 2050.

Overcoming Fuel Supply Constraints:

Importance of Recycling Uranium and Thorium

  • With increasing demand for nuclear power, reliance on mined uranium alone is unsustainable.
  • Recycling spent uranium fuel and shifting towards thorium-based reactors can significantly reduce the dependence on imported uranium.
  • By the time India reaches 25 GWe capacity, uranium requirements will exceed 8-10% of global uranium production, making recycling a necessity.

Progress in Nuclear Fuel Reprocessing

  • India has already achieved closed nuclear fuel cycle technology and developed Mixed Oxide (MOX) fuel for its Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR).
  • However, the large-scale deployment of fast breeder reactors (FBRs) has faced delays, necessitating alternative solutions to sustain nuclear capacity growth.

Thorium as the Key to Energy Security:

Advantages of Thorium Utilization

  • Thorium-based reactors offer significant benefits, including:
    • Reduced dependence on uranium imports.
    • Enhanced reactor efficiency and safety.
    • Lower fuel waste generation.
    • Proliferation-resistant fuel cycle, minimizing security risks.
  • High Assay Low Enriched Uranium (HALEU)-Thorium fuel can be used in Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs), ensuring continued nuclear expansion.

Role of Molten Salt Reactors (MSRs)

  • Molten Salt Reactors (MSRs) are critical for the third stage of India’s nuclear program, enabling efficient thorium fuel utilization.
  • Recycled thorium-uranium fuel from PHWRs can serve as an input for MSRs, ensuring long-term sustainability.

Policy and Technological Strategies for Expansion

Shifting from Foreign Dependency to Domestic Innovation

  • Instead of relying on foreign reactor technologies, India should:
    • Set independent technological goals.
    • Leverage domestic capabilities.
    • Utilize international partnerships strategically.
  • Recycling HALEU-thorium fuel is a viable alternative if fast breeder reactor deployment is delayed.

Bharat Small Reactors (BSRs) and PHWRs

  • The government’s plan to introduce Bharat Small Reactors (BSRs) under a public-private partnership model is a welcome move.
  • PHWRs (700 MWe) should remain the backbone of nuclear capacity expansion, with BSRs playing a supportive role.
  • These reactors can extend capacity addition beyond uranium supply constraints.

Future Roadmap and Implementation Challenges:

Need for Strategic Manufacturing of Small Modular Reactors (SMRs)

  • Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) are gaining traction globally, but no commercially successful model has been widely deployed.
  • India already has experience with small reactors through its 220 MWe PHWRs, which should be leveraged for SMR development.
  • Retiring coal plant sites could be repurposed for SMR deployment, provided the reactor designs ensure safety and space efficiency.

Role of Government and Private Sector

  • Research institutions like Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) and Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR) must lead nuclear advancements.
  • While private sector involvement is necessary for scaling up, the government must retain control over core nuclear technologies to avoid security risks.

Long-Term Vision for Nuclear Energy

  • A comprehensive nuclear policy must:
    • Prioritize thorium utilization to enhance India’s energy security.
    • Develop advanced reactor designs, such as MSRs and fast breeder reactors.
    • Ensure robust regulatory mechanisms to oversee nuclear expansion.

Conclusion:

India’s goal of achieving 100 GWe nuclear capacity by 2047 is ambitious but essential for sustainable energy security. Given the limited uranium availability, transitioning to a thorium-based nuclear program is critical. Strategic fuel recycling, deployment of small reactors, and leveraging domestic capabilities will be key to achieving this vision.

Source: IE

Mains Practice Question:

Discuss the challenges and opportunities in India’s nuclear energy expansion plan. How can thorium utilization and advanced reactor technologies contribute to achieving energy security while overcoming fuel supply constraints? (250 words)